Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
Table of Contents
Articles
An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support structured inquiry language
teaching to novice learners in a Primary school setting
Amelie Langdon and Jillian Pandor
1-22
English in the Linguistic Landscape of Thailand: A Case Study of Public Signs in Hat
Yai
Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
23-57
Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
58-77
Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An evaluation of some pedagogical
materials
Marta Serrano
78-102
Book Reviews
Patricia Bou-Franch and Pilar Garcés-Conejos Blitvich
Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions
reviewed by Daniel Pascual
103-109
Joss Moorkens, Sheila Castilho, Federico Gaspari and Stephen Doherty
Translation Quality Assessment: From Principles to Practice
reviewed by Rocío Caro Quintana
110-115
Anna Matamala
Accessibilitat i traducció visual
reviewed by Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández
116-120
Language Value, ISSN 1989-7103.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13
Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 1-22
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support
structured inquiry language teaching to novice learners in a
Primary school setting
Amelie Langdon
amelie.langdon@murdoch.edu.au
Murdoch University, Australia
Jillian M. Pandor
jmpcad@rit.edu
Rochester Institute of Technology - Dubai, United Arab Emirates
ABSTRACT
It is believed that Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) affords relevant and meaningful L2 instruction given its
contextualised and experiential approach. IBL, which only recently gained popularity in the L2
classroom, strongly differs from that of traditionally didactic methodologies and can present challenges
for L2 educators. Research shows that many struggle to adopt a well-rounded inquiry approach and
instead tend to over-rely on strategies aiming to make meaning comprehensible to learners, thus
neglecting a focus on language form, language use and inquiry skills. This literature review examines
current trends in L2 teaching and learning when implementing a structured inquiry approach in the
primary school setting and attempts to uncover and evaluate various scaffolding strategies that can be
employed to support a more holistic approach to IBL. The language scaffolding practices described in this
paper are categorised into four areas of focus: focus on meaning, focus on form, focus on language use,
and inquiry skills.
Keywords: Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL); Scaffolding, Second Language Acquisition (SLA); Language
and Curriculum Integration; Constructivism
I. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Over the last few decades, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) researchers have
actively sought to comprehend how languages are acquired and learnt (Chomsky, 2006;
Krashen,
1982; Vygotsky & Kozulin,
1986). Over time, an array of sometimes
contradicting theories emerged in response to a perceived deficiency of previous
approaches. Traditional methods such as the Grammar-Translation Method, with a
focus on learning about the language (Bonilla Carvajal, 2013), and the Audiolingual
Method, which encouraged memorisation of chunks of languages (Richards & Rodgers,
2014), were later replaced by the Natural Approach (Terrell, 1977) which emphasised
the importance of exposing learners to an extensive amount of comprehensible input in
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.1
Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
the target language (TL) (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). More recently, the importance
attributed to communicative competence and proficiency have given way to „middle
ground approaches‟ which blend pragmatic and functional knowledge, thus placing
language acquisition as a social practice. Researchers such as Cummins
(2000),
Gibbons (2002), and Ellis and Shintani (2013) strongly support the importance of social
interactions and learning in authentic situations as they believe that languages are best
acquired in context and through real-life experiences. Although it cannot be said that
contemporary theorists have overlooked the cognitive aspects of SLA, current trends
advocate for a more balanced focus on form and meaning, a mixture of implicit and
explicit teaching, emphasis on extensive and varied language input as well as ample
opportunities for output, to name a few of the ten principles of SLA as enunciated by
Ellis (2005).
I.1. Constructivism
In addition to the ever-evolving field of SLA, over the last century, pedagogy has
undergone equally tremendous transformation and now favours approaches that
promote more student-centred classroom practices
(Matamoros-González, Rojas,
Romero, Vera-Quiñonez & Soto, 2017). With the student at the centre of the learning
experience, values of mutual respect, growth mind-set, and emotional support are
embedded in the learning environment, and thus, guide transformative education in any
discipline (Cummins, 2000). At the heart of this revolutionary pedagogical perspective
is Constructivism (Piaget, 1952), rooted in the 20th century works of academics from
various disciplines including education pioneers Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Maria
Montessori, among others. Constructivism (Piaget, 1952) considers the learner to be an
active participant in the discovery and creation of meaning, where learning is embedded
in, and occurs from an accumulation of authentic and contextual social interactions
experienced by the learner (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Vygotsky & Kozulin, 1986). These
general pedagogical concepts transfer effortlessly to language learning, therefore,
academics in the fields of applied linguistics are encouraging educators to link
instructional content to real-world experiences (Ozverir & Herrington, 2011).
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An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support structured inquiry language teaching to novice
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Such theoretical frameworks of SLA and pedagogy gave rise to Inquiry-Based Learning
(IBL) in the language classroom, which offers a framework that allows learners to
construct meaning and build knowledge through discovery and investigation.
Proponents of IBL argue that children are naturally inquisitive (Schwarzer & Luke,
2001; Townsend, 2005), and thus inquiry is a natural process of learning (Short, 2009).
Although such an approach to teaching languages may appear to be the perfect hybrid of
student-centred learning that fosters social interaction, there are several contingencies to
its successful implementation which will be explored in further detail in the subsequent
sections of this paper.
II. INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
Originally used as a scientific exploration method (Pedaste et al., 2015; Rocard et al.,
2007), IBL has proven to be efficient and engaging for all ages and subject matter
(Short, 2009; Wells, 1995). However, it presents unique considerations depending on
the educational context or discipline at hand (Papaevripidou, Irakleous & Zacharia,
2017).
IBL encompasses various degrees of facilitator support from high to low levels of
guidance, with an inquiry continuum that ranges from „very structured‟ with strong
teacher guidance, to „open‟, student-generated investigation. While open inquiry does
offer more voice and choice to students, it is advised to introduce the process gradually
and to provide sufficient scaffolding, especially for primary-aged children (Banchi &
Bell, 2008; Killen, 2012).
II.1. Language and inquiry integration: Opportunities and challenges
The combination of an inquiry-based approach and the use of the TL affords endless
possibilities of contextualised scenarios, which as a result are thought to provoke deeper
student engagement and motivation as well as more profound opportunities for SLA
(Caputo, 2014; Cummins, 2000; Killen, 2012). In line with this notion, Larsen-Freeman
(2018, p.64) strongly advocates for a “porous classroom” where the teacher invites a
flow of exchange with the world outside the traditional boundaries of the classroom,
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Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
thus exploring and creating language within the context of its natural sociocultural and
historical occurrence, not as a series of stand-alone topics or set of grammar rules
(Cummins, 2000; Gibbons, 2002; Ozverir & Herrington, 2011).
In addition to IBL, other discovery methods have served SLA in the past few decades,
mainly driven by the need for authentic contexts and the desire to emphasise
communicative skills. Such methods, including Content Based Instruction
(CBI)
(Brinton, Snow & Wesche, 1989) and Problem Based Learning (PBL) (Boud & Feletti,
1997), are commonly encountered in the literature. Both operate under the same
constructivist paradigm and social constructivist theories as IBL, whereby knowledge is
mainly constructed by learners through social interactions, rather than solely via a
traditional model of didactic delivery. These approaches have been widely implemented
with great success for English Language Learners
(ELLs), therefore offering the
tangible experiences and relatable contexts sought after in language inquiry interaction
(Cummins, 2000; Gibbons, 2002; Walqui, 2006).
In spite of growing evidence to support the benefits of IBL in language classrooms,
given the highly contextualised learning environment it affords (Caputo, 2014; Lee,
2014; Wells,
1995), such an approach in an additional language
(L2) presents
significant challenges for educators and learners alike. This is particularly true among
novice language learners of primary school age, which will be the focus of this paper.
Indeed, research in IBL approaches to teaching languages shows that some primary
years educators report difficulties in implementing IBL in their L2 classrooms, claiming
its incompatibility with novice language learners (Lebreton, 2014; Ledger, Van Vooren,
Villaverde, Steffen & Lai, 2016; Schwarzer & Luke, 2001). Researchers in the field
(Caputo, 2014; Lebreton, 2014; Lee, 2014; Van Vooren, Lai, Ledger, Bueno Villaverde
& Steffen, 2013) have attempted to gain knowledge on this issue and shed light on the
following question: How can L2 teachers implement IBL in a language that learners
have not yet mastered? To further highlight the relevance of this question, Davidson
(2009, p.27) clearly explains that the „inquiry tools‟ needed to lead an investigation,
such as proficiency in an L2, are still being developed, thus leaving learners faced with
a linguistic overload that is likely to cause a major impediment to the proper adoption of
IBL in the TL. Inquiring in a language that is still being acquired proves challenging for
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An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support structured inquiry language teaching to novice
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both the learners and the teacher alike, as it forces the inquiry to remain at low-level
questioning and thinking (Van Vooren et al.,
2013). As a response to such high
linguistic demands, learners might resolve themselves to use their mother tongue (L1) to
assist them through the inquiry process. This notion is highly debated in the literature,
as research shows that some teachers attempt to ban the use of the L1 in their
classrooms, considering it to be a practice that is counterproductive to SLA (Dare,
2009), while other studies indicate that the use of the L1 can be a valuable tool to
support novice learners in their cognitive development, ensuring a positive
psychological outlook towards the L2 (Caputo, 2014; Cummins, 2000; Larsen-Freeman,
2018; Schwarzer & Luke, 2001).
In addition to the challenge of linguistic load, discovery learning (Bruner, 1961), as a
broader pedagogical approach, has also been criticised for putting excessive cognitive
pressure on learners (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999).
This argument is based on the claim that minimally guided instructional methods such
as IBL, PBL and CBI are less effective for novice learners than more traditional
approaches that emphasise direct instruction and strong guidance. According to
Kirschner et al. (2006), free exploration and open inquiry put excessive strain on the
working memory of the novice learner, who does not yet possess the required prior
knowledge to retain new information or apply it in creative ways. However, SLA
literature suggests that structured inquiry, or a strongly guided approach to teaching and
learning in the TL, can support learners during the acquisition of new knowledge
(Caputo, 2014; Killen, 2012; Kirschner et al., 2006).
A structured approach is based on the idea of a zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky & Kozulin, 1986), in which the teacher supports students in bridging a
learning gap through scaffolding strategies. It is assumed that such „structure‟ in the
approach to IBL will be gradually removed in the future when the learner becomes more
autonomous and advances in L2 proficiency beyond the novice stages. Therefore, in
order to provide tasks that are appropriately challenging, while avoiding cognitive
overload or compromising the use of the TL, a high level of teacher support is
imperative throughout this approach. This notion is highlighted by Dare (2009), who
suggests language teachers should aim to place their pedagogical practices in the
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Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
“developmental zone”
(Dare,
2009, p.76), where high-challenge and high-support
coexist.
III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND APPROACH TO THE LITERATURE
REVIEW
As presented above, the context of this paper is inscribed in a constructivist approach to
L2 teaching, where appropriately structured inquiry and language integration offers
valuable learning opportunities. However, some challenges related to adequate
linguistic and cognitive loads with respect to novice language learners in an IBL context
still need to be addressed in order to ensure the successful implementation of this
approach. Therefore, this study aims to explore scaffolding practices found in the
literature that can be implemented to support primary-aged novice language learners
within a structured inquiry approach based on the recommendations gathered from SLA
research, in an attempt to answer the following questions: How can structured inquiry
support L2 teachers working with novice learners in primary years curricula that
incorporate such methodologies? More precisely, what scaffolding strategies are
essential to support language acquisition in a structured inquiry approach?
While the focus of this paper is IBL, it became evident that limited studies have tackled
the narrow topic of inquiry-based L2 learning in primary-aged students. Therefore, the
search had to expand its scope to include comparable teaching approaches, namely
Concept-Based Learning, PBL and other curriculum integration models such as CBI
and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL).
Evidence of scaffolding strategies in the literature, where a discovery approach was
offered to students, were classified into two main categories: language-specific
scaffolding and inquiry-specific scaffolding (see Table 1). In order to organise the
language-specific strategies, the framework proposed by Cummins (2000) was adapted
to comprise the following three areas of language teaching: focus on meaning, focus on
form and focus on use. The focus on meaning category encompasses all strategies and
tools that support meaning making and help generate comprehensible input in the TL.
Focus on form gathers strategies that teach the language structure and system in a
consciousness-raising manner. Focus on use covers strategies that allow learners to use
the language in a meaningful and creative way. For the purposes of this study, each area
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of language teaching mentioned above was analysed separately, however in a classroom
context they tend to overlap seamlessly.
Inquiry-specific scaffolding strategies were classified according to an adapted version of
Wells‟
(1995, p.244)
“Interactive inquiry model of learning and teaching”. This
simplified framework consists of three main phases of inquiry: research, interpretation
and presentation. The research phase includes all strategies related to initiating interest,
formulating questions and explicitly teaching research skills. The interpretation of data
stage allows for categorising strategies related to organising and analysing information
gathered during the research process. The presentation of findings phase groups
teaching strategies related to the ways in which students showcase learning constructed
during the process.
Table 1. Evidence of scaffolding strategies present in the literature for a structured language inquiry
approach
Structured language inquiry approach
Language-specific scaffolding
Inquiry-specific scaffolding
o Focus on meaning
o Research skills
o Focus on form
o Interpretation of data
o Focus on use
o Presentation of findings
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As previously mentioned, an adaptation of Cummins‟ (2000) framework allowed for a
categorisation of the type of scaffolding in the following three areas: (a) focus on
meaning, (b) focus on form, and (c) focus on use. The data found in the literature are in
the form of pedagogical practices as well as recommendations offered by academics in
the field of SLA and structured inquiry teaching. A discussion for each category ensues.
IV.1. Focus on meaning
The literature reveals that in attempts to enrich students‟ vocabulary and to provide
comprehensible input, language educators are using various scaffolding strategies that
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Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
fulfil three main language-related pedagogical purposes: contextualising, bridging and
interacting.
IV.1.1. Contextualising
Contextualising strategies attempt to make meaning clear to students. The literature
advises teachers to present their speech in conjunction with non-linguistic tools to
provide a rich sensory context with a strong emphasis on visual aids (Dare, 2009;
Townsend, 2005; Walqui, 2006). With this purpose in mind, modelling the language
through action and dramatisation as well as with visuals, realia, manipulatives and films
are commonly employed by language teachers to make the TL accessible to low
proficiency learners
(Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Moses, Busetti-Frevert &
Pritchard,
2015; Thomson, 2012; Van Vooren et al., 2013; Zeegers & McKinnon,
2012). In addition, contextualisation can take its source directly from the content of the
curriculum with a CLIL approach. As discussed, language integration has become a
trend to promote teaching through the language, rather than about the language; thus
making it a popular approach with ELLs in the USA to accelerate the command of
academic literacy (Moses et al., 2015; Walqui, 2006; Wells, 1995).
IV.1.2. Bridging
Generally perceived as good pedagogical practice, bridging strategies are recommended
for making connections between background knowledge and new information, and to
encourage recall, prediction and inference (Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Cummins,
2000; Gibbons, 2002; Walqui, 2006). Some evidence of this technique is present in the
literature in the form of activities in the Chinese language that involve the exploration
and distinction between similar phonological, orthographical or semantic words as a
means of highlighting difficulties and ensuring appropriate usage of vocabulary (Lee,
2014). Similarly, in the context of ELLs, Walqui (2006) suggests providing schema
building activities in the form of a compare/contrast matrix that offers structured and
clear connections between students‟ prior knowledge and new information. Other
researchers enable the creation of links between students‟ personal interests and
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emotional connections with curriculum content to provide meaningful educative
experiences that are relevant to students, and therefore increase individual motivation to
learn (Cummins, 2000; Short, 2009). Similarly, when conducted prior to the study of a
unit, field trips afford personal experiences and generate enthusiasm about inquiring
(Van Vooren et al., 2013). However, it can be argued that it may prove challenging for
novice language learners to reach such levels of deep reflection given their age as well
as their limited fluency and free expression in the TL. As a means of diminishing such
difficulties, front-loading, or pre-teaching new vocabulary/pre-formulating the content
that will be covered, is an effective technique for novice learners to access new
information and activate prior knowledge (Dare, 2009). Resources such as vocabulary
lists, dictionaries, and cue cards are common tools to pre-teach unknown content in
order to facilitate comprehension of a text (Moses et al., 2015; Schwarzer & Luke,
2001; Thomson, 2012; Van Vooren et al., 2013).
IV.1.3. Interacting
A final category appears in the form of interactional strategies. Classroom interactions
including those of teacher-to-student nature, whole class and group discussions, are
building blocks of the social constructivist learning theory (Dare, 2009; Schwarzer &
Luke, 2001; Thomson, 2012; Townsend, 2005). During classroom inquiry, questioning,
which ultimately drives thinking, is an essential part of IBL (Cummins, 2000; Dare,
2009) and is extensively demonstrated in practice with multiple examples in the
literature of whole-class discussion and teacher-led questioning (Buhrow & Uoczak
García, 2006; Moses et al., 2015; Thomson, 2012; Zeegers & McKinnon, 2012). The
quality of teacher-student and student-student interactions is instrumental in ensuring an
effective learning environment. The teacher‟s role in establishing a safe and welcoming
classroom culture is an underlying requirement to the success of any of the strategies
that are referenced in the literature. Thus, a supportive school context where all learners
feel valued and respected as individuals is essential (Cummins, 2000; Gibbons, 2002;
Townsend, 2005). It is effectively with the learners‟ emotional well-being in mind that
some teachers are allowing the use of the L1 during L2 lessons (Buhrow & Uoczak
García, 2006; Schwarzer & Luke, 2001). The process of utilising multiple languages to
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Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
communicate, also called translanguagingi, is increasingly perceived as a meaning-
making strategy by language educators despite generating contentious debates. When
students switch languages, not only is comprehension possible, but the learners‟
individual identity and culture is acknowledged and valued (Cummins, 2000; Larsen-
Freeman, 2018).
Finally, language educators use corrective feedback during classroom interactions to
emphasise appropriate sentence structure and choice of words (Schwarzer & Luke,
2001; Thomson, 2012; Van Vooren et al., 2013). According to Ellis (2006), corrective
feedback enables a focus on syntax through reformulation to enhance meaning as well
as reflection on errors, especially in oral interactions.
Considering the variety of „focus on meaning‟ strategies encountered in a wide array of
action-research papers and linguistic theory, it appears that teachers have a reasonable
understanding of how to enhance input for novice language learners by making it more
comprehensible. In addition, this varied repertoire may also indicate the belief that
offering repeated exposure to the language in the receptive mode is a prerequisite to
building meaning (Cummins, 2000; Pritchard, 2009; Schwarzer & Luke, 2001; Walqui,
2006).
IV.2. Focus on form
This category focuses on the teaching of formal features and functions of language such
as grammar, syntax and orthography (Long, 1988, 1991; Long & Crookes, 1992). As
discussed, while recent SLA research tends to agree on the need to teach grammar, how
it is taught is still a controversial topic as contemporary researchers have suggested a
more balanced approach (Cummins, 2000; Ellis, 2006). Effectively, it is recommended
that teachers continue to give priority to language form, but the approach should be
more implicit in nature and based on explorative learning. By raising awareness of the
language structure instead of explicitly offering the rule and practicing it through rote
exercises, students are able to observe and infer correlation between the meaning and
function of certain language structures to thereafter, with appropriate teacher guidance,
deduce the grammatical rule in question (Caputo, 2014; Lee, 2014). As a result of this
approach, according to Townsend
(2005, p.152)
“when students increase their
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awareness of the structure and effects of language, they gain proficiency in the use of
language”. Linking back to the concept of contextualising learning (mentioned in the
previous section), research in language teaching shows that enabling connections
between content and learners‟ personal interests also helps to teach grammar in a
meaningful way (Gibbons, 2002; Larsen-Freeman, 2015). To illustrate this instructional
approach, it is useful to consider Cummins‟ (2000, p.276) idea of “critical language
awareness” which accentuates the need to engage learners in critical inquiry into
language form by providing authentic texts with real-life implications or cultural
messages that link to students‟ interests and passions. While many examples can be
found that have the potential to promote engagement and motivation to explore forms
(Cummins, 2000; Moses et al., 2015, Schwarzer & Luke, 2001), the literature lacks
detail to truly evaluate the effectiveness of such projects, and the degree to which they
are conducted in an inquiry-based approach.
It is important to note that form-focused strategies seem underrepresented as a category
in comparison to the wider variety of meaning-making strategies introduced above. Ac-
cording to Larsen-Freeman (2015), despite the advice offered by researchers to avoid
explicit grammar teaching as an exclusive method, grammar instruction is
predominantly taught in a traditional (or didactic) way at the expense of IBL (Lebreton,
2014; Van Vooren et al., 2013). Therefore, it could be hypothesised that progressive
language scaffolding strategies, such as raising awareness, only appear sporadically in
the literature because they are rarely implemented in practice.
IV.3. Focus on use
As described by Cummins (2000, p.9), the “focus on use” component of his framework
assumes that linguistic production should emphasise the real-life usage of language
rather than exclusively its practice; characterised as low-level activities or exercises that
involve the repetition of a specific form or function of the language, often deprived of
meaningful context. This distinction between practice and use is essential as it has a
direct (and generally positive) impact on students‟ motivation to engage in language
production given that true „usage‟ of the L2 can only be achieved through learner-
centred tasks that are both relevant and challenging (Bunch, 2013). The nature of such
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tasks in the language classroom is described by Ozverir and Herrington (2011) as being
ill-defined, close to real-world communicative situations and potentially including
various sub-tasks that both scaffold and guide the inquiry process.
In addition, Cummins (2000) emphasises the importance of providing a purpose for
language use that affords deeper thinking and questioning to motivate learners to
construct and express understanding and meaning. He urges teachers to aspire to
educate students, rather than simply teach them, something that can be achieved by
offering truly enriching learning experiences rooted in authentic contexts. Field trips,
also referenced as a means of contextualising a new language under the heading „focus
on meaning‟ as mentioned above, even if only possible occasionally, provide rich and
authentic opportunities with a genuine purpose for L2 communication. However, as an
alternative, authentic tasks designed in the classroom
-which entail a level of
superficiality because of the contrived environment within the school walls-, still
demonstrate a positive impact on the attention span and motivation of young learners
who can recognise the applicability of these tasks to real world contexts.
Although sporadic, some evidence of language use classroom strategies embedded in
potentially rich communicative opportunities is present in the literature. For instance,
tasks requiring students to represent or transform a text into another genre (Walqui,
2006; Zeegers & McKinnon, 2012) or even the creation of trans-disciplinary texts.
While such activities can be engaging and may promote language use (Cummins, 2000;
Ntelioglou, Fannin, Montanera & Cummins, 2014), there is a lack of instructional
evidence of adequate inquiry depth. Other instances of language use are offered in the
literature such as plays
(Ntelioglou et al.,
2014; Townsend, 2005) and posters as
products of an inquiry project (Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Moses et al., 2015);
however, once again only described briefly. Further information on the approach for
each task would be necessary to ensure IBL is properly used in conjunction with the TL,
thus presenting the needed conditions for effective language use.
In complement to the tasks evaluated above, other individual scaffolding tools enabling
language use are mentioned in the literature. As such, the strategy of shared-writing, by
which the learners contribute as a group to the production of a text with the help of the
teacher, enable emerging L2 users to be supported in accessing meaningful language
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production (Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Fullerton et al., 2015; Moses et al., 2015;
Ntelioglou et al.,
2014). Other tools such as journaling and small group work are
reported to be valuable in allowing shy and less confident learners to express their
thoughts in the TL in a safe environment (Capitelli, Hooper, Rankin, Austin & Caven,
2016; Cummins, 2000, Thomson, 2012; Townsend, 2005). For complete language
beginners, the use of L1 can also be used to facilitate expression in the most fluent
language available, thereby allowing higher-level thinking, which is later translated into
the TL to the learner‟s best ability (Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Cummins, 2000).
V. INQUIRY-SPECIFIC SCAFFOLDING STRATEGIES
According to Killen (2012, p.300), “… [the] primary role [of teachers] should be to help
students learn how to think, rather than teaching them how to remember”. With this
quote as a guide, this next section gathers evidence of scaffolding strategies that support
the inquiry process and explicitly teach the skills necessary to successfully conduct IBL
in the L2. An adapted version of Wells‟ (1995) framework was used in efforts to
organise the data collected from theoretical academic works and accounts of teachers‟
pedagogical practice, as described in Table 1.
V.1. Research of empirical data phase
According to Wells (1995), the research phase of the inquiry cycle should include
scaffolding strategies that aim to fulfil three main purposes: to initiate interest, to help in
formulating questions, and to teach research skills. The first of these purposes implies
offering access to carefully curated, relevant and varied resources. Offering a choice of
literary genres, including fiction pieces in addition to informational resources, is
recommended to allow the student to consider various standpoints for the same
historical event (Short, 2009). Moreover, engagement activities that allow for multiple
experiences through exploration of real-world phenomena
(Capitelli et al.,
2016;
Zeegers & McKinnon, 2012) are powerful tools to support and extend understanding
beyond factual resources that are generally prescribed by the curriculum (Short, 2009).
In order to generate enthusiasm, such resources and activities should also attempt to
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connect with the learners‟ prior knowledge and current understanding before being
extended.
Once learners have gained familiarity and developed a keen interest in a topic, a natural
wondering should occur out of issues discovered in the information-gathering phase.
Guidance towards developing a research question is needed at this stage. For this
purpose, Short (2009) recommends tools such as “I wonder” journals or classroom
charts to follow the process of questioning and reasoning of each student. Other
teachers have used modelling and thinking-aloud to generate questions with young
emerging L2 learners to help with reasoning in the TL (Moses et al., 2015). The KWL
chart -what a student knows [K], wants to know [W], and has learned [L] - is another
tool commonly used to track student progress in their investigation and wondering
(Moses et al., 2015). At this stage, it is important to note that a structured inquiry
approach generally implies that the teacher initiates the topic or question to be explored;
therefore, Killen
(2012) warns teachers to ensure that the research questions are
challenging and engaging for students as well as open for interpretation and adaptation
so that they are malleable throughout the inquiry process.
V.2. Interpretation and analysis of data phase
Once the research stage has generated enough material, learners can start organising and
interpreting the data in order to make sense of evidence and attempt to answer the
research question. This implies that learners systematically and purposefully collect and
record information before coming to conclusions (Wells, 1995). With this purpose in
mind, some teacher-researchers report adopting various strategies to keep track of
findings. Moses et al. (2015) taught students to record newly learnt information on
sticky notes with sentences starting with “I learned” in order to record key information
as well as to practice rephrasing relevant content with this sentence starter. Other
teachers exploring inquiry-based instruction for ESL, co-create anchor charts with
students that enable emerging bilinguals to record their learning and reflect on their
thinking. These large classroom displays not only provide a representation of the
inquiry pathway but also make an easy reference visual for key vocabulary and
meaningful chunks of language which have the added benefit of supporting learners
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An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support structured inquiry language teaching to novice
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with making meaning more comprehensible (Buhrow & Uoczak García, 2006; Moses et
al., 2015).
Although some instances of strategies for organising data are present in the literature,
little evidence of strategies enabling an analysis of the data is offered. Instead, the
analysis phase is only implicitly mentioned without tangible examples. On the other
hand, and in line with socio-constructivist theories, it could be argued that classroom
interactions in both L1 and L2 have the potential to facilitate the interpretation and
analysis of data phases. Therefore, given the extensive use of class discussion, group
and pair work during the inquiry process as presented throughout the reviewed literature
(Capitelli et al., 2016; Caputo, 2014; Cummins, 2000; Moses et al., 2015; Wells, 1995;
Zeegers & McKinnon, 2012), it is possible that L2 teachers are heavily relying on this
strategy to generate understanding and analysis of data during the inquiry cycle.
V.3. Presentation of findings phase
This phase includes teaching strategies that support learners in showcasing newly
acquired knowledge at the end of the inquiry process. Research shows that presentation
skills can be explicitly taught to novice L2 learners through modelling, with an
emphasis on common mistakes in efforts to highlight preferred techniques (Moses et al.,
2015). Other final products may include brochures, audiotapes, posters or student-
directed lessons to the whole class (Moses et al., 2015; Schwarzer & Luke, 2001).
Surprisingly, the use of technology is only mentioned on rare occasions in the literature
(Ntelioglou et al., 2014; Zeegers & McKinnon, 2012), despite having the potential to be
a valuable tool to support language production thanks to its multimodal possibilities to
showcase learning (Ntelioglou et al., 2014). Although some examples of what the
presentation of findings may look like are offered in the literature, there is very little
evidence of how teachers are assisting learners to acquire the needed skills to
successfully achieve this goal.
VI. CONCLUSION
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Amelie Langdon and Jillian M. Pandor
This work aimed to provide a comprehensive literature review of language teaching
strategies based in constructivist theory to demonstrate that a structured inquiry
approach can support L2 educators in teaching novice language learners in a primary
school context. Such evidence was collected from a range of academic research on
language acquisition and IBL among primary-aged learners.
In line with current language acquisition research that emphasises the importance of
offering extensive comprehensible input (Cummins, 2000; Pritchard, 2009; Swartzer &
Luke, 2001; Walqui, 2006), the above literature review revealed that educators prioritise
a wide array of strategies dedicated to meaning-making
(i.e. focus on meaning).
However, it could be indicative of a tendency towards a more didactic model at the
expense of a student-centred IBL approach. Although research supports that learners
should also be offered ample opportunities for meaningful language output (i.e. focus
on use) as well as being exposed to the language systems through raising awareness (i.e.
focus on form) (Cummins, 2000), less evidence of such scaffolding is found in the
literature. It was also discovered that few strategies are employed to explicitly teach
inquiry skills, especially with respect to the interpretation of data phase. It is unclear
whether this lack of information is due to a deficiency of knowledge of inquiry and
language integration on behalf of teachers, or whether this topic is still at the early
stages of exploration as a field of research; therefore, a more extensive search would be
valuable.
Congruent with constructivist ideas, structured L2 inquiry should employ varied
scaffolding strategies to equally address language meaning, form and use alongside
authentic learning as a means of acquiring the TL. Therefore, the present work may be
useful in promoting teachers to rethink L2 pedagogy and ensure that all phases of the
inquiry process and all language modes and skills are adequately supported with
efficient strategies to yield meaningful learning experiences for students; something that
can be achieved through a successful process of structured inquiry.
Notes
i Defined by Larsen-Freeman (2018) as situations “where students use, rather than exile, their existing
language resources in their learning of a new language” (p.61).
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learners in a Primary school setting
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Received: 09 June 2020
Accepted: 02 December 2020
Cite this article as:
Langdon, A., & Pandor, J.M. (2020). An investigation of scaffolding strategies to support
structured inquiry language teaching to novice learners in a Primary school setting. Language
Value, 13 (1), 1-22. Jaume I University ePress: Castelló, Spain. http://www.languagevalue.uji.es.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.1
ISSN 1989-7103
Language Value 13(1), 1-22
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22
Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 23-57
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study
of public signs in Hat Yai
Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
avivasperaza@unizar.es
University of Zaragoza, Spain
ABSTRACT
During the last decades, English has become an international language in all kinds of contexts, including
business and tourism, and Asian linguistic landscapes are a good reflection of this phenomenon. This
paper focuses on Thailand and the city of Hat Yai, where a corpus of 165 public signs were collected.
These were analysed quantitatively to discuss the functions that English performs in public domains, and
also qualitatively, by means of a multimodal analysis, to observe the Thai and English prominence in the
case of multilingual signs. The results show the importance of English, not only as an international
communicative tool, but also as a language of prestige and media impact. Furthermore, some features of
written Thai English or Tinglish were found in some signs, which may confirm the early stages of
development of a possible new emerging variety of World Englishes.
Keywords: Linguistic Landscape; Thailand; Hat Yai; Functions of English, Language Prominence; Thai
English.
I. INTRODUCTION
Linguistic Landscape (henceforth LL) research is defined by Landry and Bourhis (1997)
as the study of “the visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial signs
in a given territory or region” (p. 23); that is to say, it involves the study of the presence
and dominance of languages displayed in the public domains of a particular location.
These languages are to be found in written signs “outside private homes”, such as “road
signs, names of streets, shops and schools” (Shohamy et al., 2010, p.xiv), and it can also
be extended to advertisements and even product names.
Thailand has been a very attractive destination for LL researchers, given the prominent
economic growth that the country has experienced thanks to tourism during the last
decade, and therefore, the impact that this phenomenon has had on the language
exposure and usage. Ever since Huebner
(2006) explored
15 neighbourhoods in
Bangkok, other relevant studies have followed, such as Thongton‟s (2016) in Chiang
Mai, and Prasert and Zilli‟s (2019) in Pattaya. Nonetheless, all these studies have been
carried out in the capital or in popular tourist urban areas of the country, and little
Language Value, ISSN 1989-7103
23
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.2
Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
attention has been paid to other cities that are not especially well-known, such as Hat
Yai.
Hat Yai is the fourth largest city of Thailand, located in the Southeast, so that it is a
transit location for travellers who pass through and from Malaysia, its neighbouring
country. Most tourists it receives are of Malaysian and Singaporean origin, and the
presence of Western people is not very common. The English language is not as widely
spoken as in other tourist-destined locations such as Chiang Mai, Bangkok and Phuket;
nevertheless, its presence on the public signage is notorious and worth examining.
Undoubtedly, English has become a global language during the past decades, and its use
in the LL of Hat Yai can be primarily justified by the need of communicating with
tourists and expats of any origin. Some public signs in this city, however, prove that on
many occasions, the choice is linked to a question of language prestige and
globalisation. The choices made in terms of visual prominence of one language or
another on those signs may reveal those functions. Moreover, it is worth mentioning
that quite a few signs written in English by Thai authors do not adopt any specific
standard variety of English, such as the Australian or the British. What at first sight may
be considered a poor use of grammar and vocabulary, reflects that a new potential
variety of English, known as Thai English or Tinglish (Bennui & Hassim, 2014, p. 16),
may be developing. Together with the use of English as the international language for
communication (p. 14), ThaiE is slowly spreading, and the LL of Hat Yai shows it.
This article will therefore focus on the specific functions that the English language
performs in the public sphere of Hat Yai, the visual prominence of this language in the
case of multilingual signs, and the incidence of signs written in ThaiE. These aims have
been summarised in the following research questions:
(i)
What are the most frequent functions of English in the LL of Hat Yai?
(ii)
How visually prominent English is on signs, and what part of the message
is translated into English?
(iii)
How prevailing is the use of ThaiE in signs and which are its features?
These questions will be answered by gathering and analysing some data that (i) include
public signs belonging to different domains, and therefore, carry out different functions;
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
(ii) contain several multilingual signs that can display the preference for visual
prominence of English in relation to Thai and other languages and the amount of
information that is provided in those languages; and (iii) display, where applicable,
some features of ThaiE.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
II.1. Previous LL Studies
The notion of LL constitutes a relatively recent or “fertile” area of study in the field of
sociolinguistics
(Shohamy & Gorter, 2009, p.14). Even though a few early works
already explored the choice of languages displayed in public scenarios, like that of
Spolsky and Cooper (1991) in Jerusalem, the concept of LL was not introduced until
1997 by Landry and Bourhis. Since then, relevant works have been compiled and edited
by well-known scholars, such as Gorter (2006) and Shohamy et al. (2010), in their
respective books: Linguistic Landscape. A New Approach to Multilingualism, and
Linguistic Landscape of the City.
The scope of study is large and diverse. Some researchers have analysed the language
choice in shop signs, like Wang (2013) did in Beijing and Amer and Obeidat (2014)
accomplished in Aqaba City. Others have centred on the promotion of multilingualism
through landscapes, such as Dressler‟s (2015) work in a public school with German-
bilingual program and Siricharoen‟s (2016) at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok.
There are also those who have engaged in a discussion on the presence of the English
language in the public sphere and have therefore been an inspiration and a source of
theoretical and practical proposals for the present analysis. For instance, Lawrence
(2012) analysed the use of English in the LL of Korea and its impact on the national
language, and Takhtarova et al. (2015) examined the role of English as an international
language in the cities of Paris, Berlin, and Kazan.
II.2. Actors and Functions of Public Signs
Most scholars, like Backhaus (2007), Shohamy and Gorter (2009), and Coulmas (2013),
agree that the target location for analysis is the urban environment, for most written
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
signs are exposed there. Depending on the LL actors (i.e., the authors who shape the
LL), Ben-Rafael et al. (2006) classify signs into two groups: public actors, or “top-
down”, and private actors, or “bottom-up”. The former consists in “official signs placed
by the government or related institution” and the latter refers to “non-official signs put
there by commercial enterprises, organisations or persons” (p. 3). In any case, written
signs are created by city residents for the public (local or non-local) to see; thus, the
language choice in them is not random.
The LL of a city provides information about the history, ideology, political system,
economy, geography, and demography of the society. It also projects values like
“patriotism, national pride, ethnic allegiance, commercial competition and
globalisation”
(Shohamy et al.,
2010, p.xiii), which unfold some functions of
multilingualism in public writing. Additionally, apart from communicating, a LL also
aims to transmit messages to its readers and its study is fundamental to understand the
background and current behaviour of a community. At the same time, it may be as
powerful as to lead to changes in society (Coulmas, 2013): it can serve as a tool for
protest, media broadcast or diffusion, and even language input.
According to Landry and Bourhis (1997), there are two major functions of public signs:
informational and symbolic. The informational function aims at indicating the
geographical territory of a language group and the symbolic function reveals how
different languages are perceived by a particular linguistic community in terms of their
value and status. When dealing with English language use in a particular LL, another
function could be considered: media diffusion. In this current era of digital
globalisation, with English as the dominant language over the internet (Flammia &
Saunders,
2007), it is noticeable that the English language may also be used to
broadcast certain information faster than it would be done with another language, and
this may also be displayed through the LL.
II.3. Choices about Language Prominence in Public Signs
The positioning and the spatial appearance of a language in a public sign is also an
aspect that some other LL experts
(Haynes,
2012; Huebner,
2006) have shown
awareness of in the study of linguistic landscapes, since it provides significant
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
information about the power and relevance of such language in a community of
speakers or in a particular domain. In his article, Huebner (2006) explores language
prominence in the linguistic landscape of Bangkok, and Haynes (2012) also compares
the positioning of English and Welsh in signs in the city of Cardiff.
According to Huebner (2006), language prominence depends on: (i) placement of text,
or primary or secondary position that the language occupies on the sign; (ii) size of font;
(iii) amount of text provided in a particular language in comparison to another; and (iv)
colours of font or surrounding design around the text.
Together with language prominence, another interesting aspect is the amount of text that
is devoted to each language in multilingual signs, as all the content of the message is not
always provided in both languages. According to Reh‟s
(2004) classification of
multilingual signs, there are 4 types of relationship between the content of the message
and the languages used in the signs: duplicating (all information is provided in each
language), fragmentary
(one language provides more information than others),
overlapping (two or more languages present shared information in the sign, but each of
them also provide other details not found in the other languages) and complementary
(two or more languages show different information).
II.4. The English Language in Thailand
Unlike most Southeast Asian countries, Thailand always managed to avoid colonialism
from any European empire (Baker, 2012), and standard Thai has always been the only
official language of the country. Bolton (2008) affirms that only around 10% of the Thai
population are English speakers and according to Kachru‟s (1985) Three circles of
English theory, Thailand is included in the „Expanding circle‟ of World Englishes (see
Figure 1), where “English plays no historical or governmental role” (Wilang & Teo,
2012, p.4).
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 1. Three Concentric Circles of Asian Englishes (Populations in Thousands) (Kachru, 1998, p. 94).
Conversely, while the presence of English in Thai people‟s daily lives is rare, it does
play an important role in international communication and digital technology these
days, and it is regarded as a language of prestige and professionalism. It constitutes the
means of communication with not only the Western world, but also with other Asian
countries: it is the common tongue in ASEANi and ASEAN+3ii (Baker, 2012). In
addition, as the field of World Englishes evolves, and English usage is slowly spreading
around the country, ThaiE is emerging as a new English variety (Chutisilp, 1984;
Watkhaolarm, 2005).
III. METHODOLOGY
III.1. Materials
For this project, 165 pictures of public signs where English was included were taken
randomly. 35 signs were monolingual (only written in English) and the remaining 130
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
signs were multilingual, where more than one language appeared: 123 were written in
English and Thai, 3 in English and Chinese, 2 in English, Thai and Chinese, and 2 in
English, Japanese and Thai.
To collect a diverse sample and to compare the linguistic behaviour of different
landscapes around the Hat Yai, the following locations were chosen:
1.
Prince of Songkla University Campus, with address Kanjanawanich Soiiii
15 Rd, Tamboniv Kho Hong, Amphoev Hat Yai, Changwatvi Songkla
90110.
2.
Central Festival Shopping Centre, with address Kanjanawanich Rd, Hat
Yai.
3.
Vongvanit Rd, Tambon Hat Yai, Amphoe Hat Yai, Chang Wat Songkla
90110.
4.
Thumnoonvithi Rd, Tambon Hat Yai, Amphoe Hat Yai, Changwat
Songkla, 90110.
These areas can be classified into three domains: education
(university campus),
commerce (shopping centre) and the public way (the two streets chosen at random). For
obtaining a balanced collection of signs, I took the same number of pictures for each of
them; namely, 55 signs at PSU campus, 55 at Central Festival, and another 55 at the
streets Thumnoonvithi and Vongvanit.
There is no general consensus on what signs can be representative of the LL, since
several points of view have been provided (Shohamy & Gorter, 2009). Landry and
Bourhis (1997) would consider roads and street signing, advertisements and public signs
in official buildings, whereas Backhaus (2006) would select “any piece of written text
within a definable frame” (p.56). During the analysis of signs in Hat Yai, I used
Backhaus‟s definition, selecting every sample of writing publicly displayed, not only
outdoors but also inside buildings and businesses open to the public, like book covers
and names of products.
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III.2. Methods of analysis
The study was conducted using a mixed methods approach, which combines
quantitative and qualitative data to give an answer to the previous research questions.
Quantitative analysis was used to provide an illustrative idea (in percentages) of the
most common functions of English in signs, as well the visual and linguistic
prominence in English and Thai and the incidence of signs displaying ThaiE features.
The signs were first counted and categorised according to type (advertisement, book
cover, shop sign, and so on) and actor (private or public), to facilitate the discussion
around functions and language prominence depending on those categorisations. In order
to discuss the functions that the English language performs, every item of the collected
data was thoroughly observed and then classified according to informational, symbolic
and media diffusion functions. As for the qualitative content, it consisted of a
multimodal analysis to interpret the visual prominence of English and Thai in signs and
to analyse the amount of text provided in each language. Huebner‟s (2006) and Reh‟s
(2004) frameworks
(previously developed in the literature review) were used
respectively for these studies. ThaiE features in signs were contrasted to those listed in
previous literature (Snodin, 2014; Thammawan, 2008; Trakulkasemsuk, 2012).
IV.ANALYSIS OF THE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE OF HAT YAI: FINDINGS
IV.1. Categorisation of signs
The following sign types were obtained:
59 advertisements (products, events, courses, etc.).
40 informative signs
(opening hours, warning signs, instructions,
directions, requests, and greetings).
29 shop signs.
14 street and place signs.
12 book and magazine covers, taken at B2S stationery store, located
inside Central Festival shopping centre.
7 Thai products found in a 7 Eleven supermarket in Vongvanit Road.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
4 objects, such as a phone box or a letterbox, also contemplated by
Spolsky and Cooper (as cited in Shohamy & Gorter, 2009).
The data were also classified according to the actor: the sample provided 57 signs set in
public institutions (top-down) and 108 signs created by private actors (bottom-up). Top-
down signs were mostly found in PSU campus and its nature was informative in large
part, whereas the majority of bottom-up sign included advertisements, found in
commercial private establishments such as Central Festival. In the streets, the selected
signs were mainly taken at private institutions too, which contributed to the final higher
proportion of private (65%) versus public actor signs (35%).
IV.2. Functions of English
The incidence of each function was provided in percentages rounded up to the nearest
integer number. In short, the functions of English in signs, as previously mentioned in
the literature review, were classified as: informational, symbolic and media diffusion
(See Table 1). Many signs were included in more than one classification, since it was
determined that the use of English in them had more than one function; therefore, the
sum of the percentages was higher than 100 as these multifunctional signs were counted
more than once.
Table 1. Incidence of the Different English Functions in the LL of Hat Yai.
Functions of English
Number of signs performing
% of signs performing this
this function
function
Symbolic
93/165*
56%
Informational
85/165
51%
Media diffusion
23/165
14%
* Total number of signs
IV.2.1. Informational function
The type of signs fulfilling this function are advertisements, and more predominantly,
those signs that provide what Karapalo
(2011) considers as
“non-commercial”
information (p.32): greetings, instructions, directions, opening hour signs, place names,
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mandatory requests, objects, and warnings. All these include English and Thai
(sometimes other languages as well) since they aim to address the message not only to
local people, but also to foreigners, as exemplified in the Figures 2 and 3 below:
Figure 2. Road signs.
Figure 3. Motorcycle Parking.
There are also those signs in which the Thai language is not present, for they are
intended only to newcomers (See Figures 4 and 5):
Figure 4. Warning to PSU International Students.
Figure 5. Advertising of Tourist Member Card at Central Festival.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
Figure 3 consists of a warning sign found in a students‟ dormitory inside PSU campus
where only international students were hosted, and Figure 4 shows an advertisement
that was located at Central Festival, in which a shopping discount membership card
only for tourists is promoted. In this advertisement, the sentence
“Register at
information counters”, on the left-hand side of the sign, may want to indicate that an
English speaker is available at the counter in case international visitors wish to obtain
more information about the member card.
The informational goal of English was mainly found at PSU campus with 40 signs. This
is explained by the number of international students accommodated in the campus at
that moment
(more than
300, as stated by Ana Maria Pavel, secretary of the
International Affairs Office at PSU campus) to whom the signs were addressed. As for
the streets and the shopping centre, 29 and 15 signs were related to it, respectively.
IV.2.2. Symbolic function
As Bierma (2008) explains, many shops, restaurants and any type of businesses choose
a foreign tongue for their names, slogans, or promotional texts. In these cases, the
language choice is not motivated by the presence of foreigners, but by the positive
associations that such language is presumed to evoke.
In the case of English, numerous LL researchers (Lawrence, 2012; Mensel et al., 2016;
Snodin, 2014) assure that it makes products or businesses more attractive, since it
carries a series of positive connotations: modernity, progress, prestige, wealth,
technological development, sophistication, reliability, globalisation, success and
exclusiveness. Moreover, Siricharoen (2016) also affirms that the use of English may be
motivated by its aesthetic value, since its font is considered to have a minimalist style.
Consequently, many advertisements display some parts of the text in English, being
normally the name of the product or business, to attract customers‟ attention, and then
turn to Thai for explaining the characteristics of the product, as in the case of Hi-Precise
Eye Pen (See Figure 6).
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 6. Advert of eyeliner.
The symbolic function was mainly found in the signs located in the Central Festival
shopping centre (47 signs), and the streets Thumnoonvithi and Vongvanit (38 signs),
where most advertisements, businesses and products were found.
IV.2.3. Media diffusion function
When discussing LL research and my findings with Dr. Premin Karavi, a Thai professor
of the Faculty of Liberal Arts in PSU, he made me reflect about the media diffusion
function of English in the LL of Hat Yai. Apart from the informational and symbolic
functions, signs in Thailand prove to carry other purposes when written in English, as in
Figure 7:
Figure 7. Claiming Independence in Patani.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
This sign, for example, aims to mobilise people to support the old Sultanate of Patani,
under Bangkok‟s administrative control since the early 20th century, in its fight for
independence from the countryvii. Here, there is an informational function for its
readers, but the use of English does not seem to pursue any symbolic goal; instead, it
may intend to favour the media dissemination of the message, since it announces a
wikiproject that is stored on the internet, and that everyone can check and circulate
easily. It is worth arguing as well that English writing in this case may be used as means
of resistance against the imposition of the Thai language in that area; and at the same
time, to reach outsiders who presumably do not speak the local language, and therefore,
shed light on the readers to whom the message may be addressed.
Given the strong dominance that English has over the mass media, especially on the
Internet, some actors may use it on their signs to promote businesses, products, or
events internationally. Thus, this function may also explain why Thai writers decide to
write their books‟ titles in English even though the full content is written in Thai,
business owners and suppliers choose an English name for their shops or products, and
some adverts of events only include their name in English, as illustrated below (See
Figures 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13):
Figure 8. Passive Income.
Figure 9. Digital Life book.
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 10. Look at Me.
Figure 11. Student First Academy.
Figure 12. Aquaful life 2017.
Figure 13. NCAM 2017.
It can be confusing to see so many adverts where the relevant information is written in
Thai and only the title of the event, book, business, or product is provided in English. If
the function of English here were informational, the whole message (or a higher
proportion of it) would be provided in this language, as it is displayed in, for instance,
Figures 1 and 2, where the function is merely informative for those who encounter the
sign physically.
If, on the contrary, the actors of this LL provided the whole message (titles included) in
Thai, the content would only be understood by the local Thai speaking public that came
across the sign. The media diffusion function may provide a tentative explanation for
this phenomenon: the use of English in the titles of events, products and promotions
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
may facilitate their diffusion on the digital environment since the viewers can do
internet search to obtain more information about them. Sometimes, as it is the case of
Figures 10, 11 and 13, the signs even include internet links (which are always in
English) that may make this function more explicit.
In brief,
23 signs were considered to perform the media diffusion function: 12 at
Central Festival, 8 inside PSU Campus and 3 in the streets. What most of them have in
common is that the main information of the sign is written in the Thai language and the
title of the event, book, business, or product is produced in English, so that it can be
spread more easily through the media.
IV.3. Language Prominence
Following Huebner‟s (2006) framework, the language prominence between English and
Thai in signs was noticed and exemplified according to each variable:
Placement of text. It refers to the primary or secondary position of the
language in the sign. If one language appears above the other in a vertical
position, the former could be considered prominent, and the same would
occur if considering the horizontal perspective, that one language would
be positioned first (See Figures 14 and 15).
Figure 14. Warning about belongings.
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 15. Opening Hours SONY shop.
It should be stressed that in Figure 14, the dominant language is English, for it is placed
above Thai, and by contrast, Thai prevails over English in Figure 15, since it can be
found on the left-side door of the shopviii.
Size of Font. The more visible the language is in terms of letter size, the
more prominent it will be meant to be in the sign. Sometimes size of font
may overrule the position or placement; that is to say, a language can
appear in the second position (on the right or under the other language)
but be dominant because the font size used is relatively bigger, and
therefore, more eye-catching (See Figure 16).
Figure 16. Lady First shop.
In Figure 16, even though Thai occupies the first vertical position, English is obviously
the dominant language selected for the name of this clothes shop.
Amount of Text. It can also be argued that the language prominence is
determined by the text quantity. In this case, the prevailing language will
be the one in which most text or the most important information of the
sign has been written. Here, the choice of dominant language for analysis
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
may be rather subjective, since this will depend on the information of the
sign that the reader considers to be most relevant. As a proficient English
speaker with no knowledge of Thai, I had to ask for translations to make
decisions here. In Figure 17, for instance, I regarded that English was not
the dominant language: although the acronym “IELTS”, which could be
working as a logo for branding purposes, is the most visually appealing
message of the advert, all the information about the preparation course
for this English test appears in Thai, and I considered that to be the most
important part of the message.
Figure 17. IELTS Preparation Course.
In contrast, in Figure 18, English seems to carry the most important information of the
advertisement: “SALE 30-50%”. Even if the description of the available products and
services are written in Thai, I considered the main point of the advertisement to be the
interesting discounts that could be found in the shop, since the products are also
illustrated by images.
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 18. Haus Interior Sales.
Colours. A language can also stand out from the others depending on the
colour used for the font or the image or design over which the text is
written. In Figure 19, even though most of the text is written in Thai, the
language that prevails visually is English, not only because of the font
size, but because of the golden colour in which the text was written.
Figure 19. Ultra Screen Ad.
Regarding Figure 20, the fact that the Thai language is positioned first vertically does
not prevent English from being the dominant language of the sign thanks to the blue
textbox on which the text was situated.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
Figure 20. PSU Open Week.
By considering all these variables, the number of signs in which English or Thai were
dominant were counted according to the domain (shopping centre, university campus
and street), sign type (ads, books, place names, informative signs, etc.) and actor (public
or private institutions), to observe the language that was most popular in terms of
prominence. The data are presented in the three tables below (See Tables 2, 3 and 4):
Table 2. Language Prominence in Signs according to Domain.
DOMAIN
LANGUAGE PROMINENCE
Central Festival Shopping Centre (43)*
English (54%)**
Prince of Songkla University Campus (41)
Thai (85%)
Vongvanit and Thumnoonvithi Streets (46)
English (53%)
* Total number of multilingual signs in that domain
** Percentage of signs showing that prominent language
According to domain (See Table 3), it can be observed that Thai was the most
prominent language in those signs collected from PSU campus, which may suggest that
even if it is an international campus hosting students from many other linguistic
backgrounds, the LL intends to make explicit the country in which the campus is set in.
Table 3. Language Prominence in Signs according to Sign Categorisation.
SIGN TYPE
LANGUAGE PROMINENCE
Advertisements
English (54%)
Informative signs
Thai (85%)
Product and business names
English (76%)
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Street and Place names
Thai (100%)
Book covers
Thai (73%)
Objects
Thai (100%)
For obvious geographical reasons, Table 3 shows that Thai is the most prominent
language in informative signs, street and place names, and objects, since there may be
no need to emphasise English for symbolic or media diffusion functions, as it is the case
with advertisements, product and business names, and book covers. As far as the actor
of the sign is concerned, it is not surprising that Thai is the dominant language in top-
down signs and English is chosen by private institutions whose main objective is selling
or promoting products and events (See Table 4):
Table 4. Language Prominence in Signs according to Actor.
ACTOR
LANGUAGE PROMINENCE
Public Institution / Top-Down (48)
Thai (90%)
Private Institution / Bottom-Up (82)
English (57%)
In sum, some conclusions can be drawn about the utilisation of English or Thai in signs.
On the one hand, it can be stated that Thai is the dominant language in those
multilingual signs that perform a more informational function: objects, street and place
names and any other informative signs, created by public actors. Consequently, PSU
campus is the location with more Thai-dominant signs because these were mostly
discovered there. On the other hand, English is the preferred language when dealing
with symbolic and media diffusion functions; that is to say, with commercial or
business-oriented signs established by private actors, especially advertisements, product
packages, and shop signs.
Together with language prominence, another interesting aspect is the amount of text that
is devoted to each language in multilingual signs, as all the content of the message is not
always provided in both languages.
Regarding Reh‟s classification of multilingual signs
(2004), the four types of
multilingual writing that also explore language prominence were also identified in the
signs. Prior to this analysis, I had to ask again for translations to Thai speakers.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
Duplicating Multilingual Writing. The whole content has been fully
translated into another language or languages, as in the example below
(See Figure 21).
Figure 21. Traditional Thai Medicine Hospital.
Fragmentary Multilingualism. The whole content of the message is
provided in one of the languages, and just some part of it has been
translated. In Figure 22, even if the name of the place appears in both
English and Thai, the name of the university (in red font) is only written
in Thai.
Figure 22. Office of Sports and Health Center.
Overlapping Multilingual Writing. Two or more languages present
shared information in the sign, but each of them also provide other
details not found in the other languages. In Figure 23, both languages
share some information (the name of the restaurant, “Wooden Box”, has
been translated into Thai above the arrow); and at the same time, there is
some information that each language provides separately: the type of
cuisine and drinks in English, and the address of the restaurant in Thai
(above the arrow too).
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Figure 23. Wooden Box.
Complementary Multilingual Writing. In this case, two or more
languages show different information, as in Figure 24. English covers the
slogans of the race, the dates and the city where it will take place, and in
the bottom left corner of the sign, the Thai language informs about the
exact address and the purpose of the event
(learn how to drive a
motorcycle in KTM style).
Figure 24. Ready to Race.
Once this classification was made, I proceeded to another quantitative analysis, this
time to remark the most common type of multilingual writing according to the sign
type. In the sample, 130 out of 165 signs are multilingual. Table 5 demonstrates that the
most frequent multilingual signs are duplicating (59 signs), and these can be spotted in
informative signs, where the content is meant to be understood by all audiences, local
and non-local. 33 signs are fragmentary, 32 complementary and only 6 proved to be
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
overlapping. Furthermore, it was interesting to encounter most complementary signs in
advertising.
Table 5. Number of Signs for each Multilingual Type according to Sign Type.
Streets
Business
Informative
Adverts
and
and
Books
Objects
Total
signs
Products
Places
Duplicating
5*
25
13
11
2
3
59
Fragmentary
8
9
7
1
8
0
33
Complementary
23
0
8
0
1
0
32
Overlapping
5
0
1
0
0
0
6
Total
41
34
29
12
11
3
130
* Number of signs in each type.
As it can be distinguished, the amount of information written or translated in English is
related to the functions that the English language performs in public signage.
When it comes to business, product names, and titles of events, English is the preferred
language in multilingual signs, whether they are translated into Thai (not very usual in
this sample) or not. This LL behaviour seems comprehensible enough when considering
the symbolic and media diffusion functions discussed previously: the English language
allows a rapid diffusion in the case of events, and at the same time, makes the business
or products sound reliable, trendy and prestigious. As for the use of English in the
promotion and discount signs, it may serve as both a pole of attraction for tourists, and a
medium to associate the business with the Western world.
With regards to the Thai language, it is used to provide further information about those
companies, products, events, or promotions that have gained more prestige with the use
of the international language. Here, the informational purpose of the Thai language in
signs is confirmed again. In short, English creates international visibility, and Thai
communicates with local people.
IV.4. Thai English
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
When carrying out the previous quantitative and qualitative analysis, I remarked that a
quarter of the signs did not adopt any specific standard variety of English, such as the
American or the British. Instead, some Thainess was revealed in the morphology,
syntax and lexicon, which have been previously described as typical features of Thai
English or Tinglish
(Snodin,
2014; Thammawan,
2008; Trakulkasemsuk,
2012).
Chutisilp (1984) and Watkhaolarm (2005) were also pioneers in analysing Thai English
writing and concluding that this may be a new developing variety of World Englishes.
As in these previous studies, the LL of Hat Yai shows that even if at a very early stage
of development, ThaiE is displayed publicly: 27 % of the signs (44 out of 165) show
some features. As it can be noticed in Tables 6, 7 and 8, ThaiE is mostly used in Central
Festival and informative signs, with no significant difference among the authors: 28 %
were produced by public actors and 25 % in the case of private.
Table 6. Incidence of Signs Written in AE/BE or Tinglish according to Domain.
% Monolingual signs written
% Monolingual signs written
in American English (AE) /
in ThaiE and Multilingual
Domains
British English (BE) or
signs written in ThaiE and
multilingual signs written in
other languages
AE/BE and other languages
Central
64%
36%
PSU Campus
73%
27%
Streets
82%
18%
Table 7. Incidence of Signs Written in AE/BE or Tinglish according to Sign Type.
% Monolingual signs written
% Monolingual signs written
in American English (AE) /
in ThaiE and Multilingual
Sign type
British English (BE)or
signs written in ThaiE and
multilingual signs written in
other languages
AE/BE and other languages
Informative
65%
35%
Book covers
67%
33%
Advertisement
69%
31%
Streets
76%
24%
Product
83%
17%
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
Objects
100%
0%
Table 8. Incidence of Signs Written in AE/BE or Tinglish according to Actor.
% Monolingual signs written
% Monolingual signs written
in American English (AE) /
in ThaiE and Multilingual
Actor
British English (BE)or
signs written in ThaiE and
multilingual signs written in
other languages
AE/BE and other languages
Public
72%
28%
Private
75%
25%
From these data, it can be concluded that ThaiE is used by Thai population to some
extent, no matter the producer or the reader. Even if some consider it “abhorrent” and
“not counted” (Bennui & Hashim, 2014, p.16) or simply do not regard it as a “stabilised
form” (Buripakdi, 2011, p.73), the LL of Hat Yai demonstrates that ThaiE is showing
some features, to be exemplified below.
Lexical Borrowing. Some concepts have no translation or simply cannot
be explained in other varieties of the English language. Consequently,
loans from Thai are detected in ThaiE (See Figure 25).
Figure 25. Street name.
In Figure 25, the word “soi” is the Thai word used to refer to a side street that branches
off a main bigger street. It is interesting how the word “road” is translated into English,
but not “soi”, probably because there is no exact translation for it (streets in Thailand
are organised in a different way with respect to other countries).
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
Word Order. The natural word-order in Thai is different from English.
For instance, adjectives in English are normally placed before the noun,
whereas in Thai, the usual behaviour is exactly the opposite. Because of
this, it is common to find the Thai grammatical order in ThaiE (See
Figures 30 and 31).
If any variety from the inner circle of World Englishes were used in these signs, the
message in Figures
26 and
27 shall be
“all beautiful things” and
“1st Floor”
respectively, but the sentence structure reveals a Thai producer.
Figure 26. The Quality of Service Excellent Billboard.
Figure 27.Tourist Center Sign.
Redundancy. As Trakulkasemsuk
(2012) explains, the proper Thai
language writing aims to comprise as much information as possible into a
sentence, which is why using many modifiers around a noun to provide
full explanations is a natural linguistic behaviour and
“embellishes”
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
language (p.108). As a result of the transfer of Thainess into English,
some redundant structures can be found in signs (See Figures 28, 29 and
30).
Figure 28. Thai Self Taught Book.
Figure 29. Faculty of Environmental Management Ad.
Figure 30. Southern Laboratory Animal Facility.
In Figure 28, the sentence “For people whose mother tongue is not the Thai language to
study and approach Thai” sounds definitely wordy and complex in the inner circle
varieties of English. The same occurs in Figure 29, where the announcement “All
admissions are opened year round” could be simplified to something like
“Open
admissions year round”. As for Figure 30, Kathleen Nicoletti (a New Yorker professor
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
from PSU) and I agreed that the term “facility” is not necessary to designate this place;
moreover, it also proves that ThaiE word order is influenced by the Thai language
grammatical structure, for the standard grammatical order in English would produce
something like “Southern Animal Laboratory”.
Creative Spelling. In her article, Snodin (2014) mentions the linguistic
creativity and originality of the Thai LL actors in the media when dealing
with spelling. To illustrate that, she points at the English names of two
Thai media shows where the spelling is different than expected: “Klear”
and “Dezember” (p.109).
In this sample, I encountered a few cases in which this behaviour could be regarded, and
the most repetitive was the spelling of “Beauty” with “i” in cosmetic products (See
Figures 31 and 32).
Figure 31. Beauti Powder Product.
Figure 32. Inner Beauti Product.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
No Verb Inflection. As explained by Thammawan, the Thai language
uses no verb inflections to indicate tenses as in the English language;
instead, tenses are expressed by temporal adverbs (2008). For this reason,
some verbs do not include verb inflections that would be used in other
English varieties, as “Recommend” in Figure 33 and “close” in Figure
34:
Figure 33. Cream Banana Product.
Figure 34. Close Informative Sign.
These are some illustrations of the most evident features of Thai English in this sample
of signs. The fact that these features are present in advertising, product packaging, book
covers and business names, where the message is intended to have diffusion, suggests
that this potential variety of World Englishes may be spreading, and as a result, could
become a regularised variety in the future.
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Ana Cristina Vivas-Peraza
V. CONCLUSIONS
In a city where local citizens prove to have very little or no knowledge of English, the
LL demonstrates the influence that this language has over the country of Thailand.
Whether people use it or not in their daily life, English is present everywhere through
public signs, especially in the advertising field.
According to the present corpus, the main functions that English performs in public signs
are symbolic, informational and media diffusion, being the first two the most
representative. These results demonstrate the effects of an increasingly globalised
world, where even in a country like Thailand, whose national language and culture have
been strongly preserved along history, the use of English in publicity or business affairs
provides an air of westernisation, attractiveness, modernity and reliability, and makes
communication easier all over the world.
Regarding language prominence, this analysis shows that English is the dominant
language in those signs whose functions are symbolic and media diffusion, and Thai is
more visible in informational signs created by public actors. Moreover, English is the
preferred language for names of events, promotions, companies and products because of
the its positive connotations, and Thai provides further information about those items.
Otherwise speaking, English is used to indicate internationalisation and create
visibility, and Thai communicates with local people and symbolises local allegiance.
The presence of ThaiE or Tinglish features in a quarter of this corpus was an unexpected
but worth mentioning finding that may confirm the early stage of development of a
potential variety of World Englishes. In order to draw further conclusions about the
position of ThaiE in the next decades, future research will need to be conducted to
observe its evolution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Mr Ronnapath Pangoat, Mr. Worradorn Phairuang, Professor
Premin Karavi, Professor Kathleen Nicoletti and Ms Ana Maria Pavel, all staff
members and students of Prince of Songkla University in Hat Yai, Thailand, for helping
me with the translations from English to Thai and vice versa.
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English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of public signs in Hat Yai
This article is a contribution to the research group “Comunicación internacional y retos
sociales” funded by the Regional Government of Aragon (project code H16_20R).
Notes
i Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1967.
ii Association of Southeast Asian Nations Plus Three (ASEAN + 3) was institutionalised in 1999 and it
consists of a cooperation on energy, transport and technology between ASEAN and three other countries:
Japan, China and South Korea.
iii Soi: alley, lane or side street.
iv Tambon: sub-district
v Amphoe: minor district
vi Changwat: province (http://www.thai-language.com/dict)
vii The population in this South-Eastern region in Thailand is 80% Malay Muslim who speak Jawi, a
Malay dialect, and due to cultural contrasts, have chosen to be resistant to the strong Buddhist Thai
pressure. Consequently, major disputes are still taking place between the Thai government and these
inhabitants, who have been claiming independence since 1902 (Croissant & Trinn, 2009, p. 17).
viii The Thai language is read from left to right, which is why this reasoning about left- right language
prominence makes sense.
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Received: 21 March 2020
Accepted: 02 December 2020
Cite this article as:
Vivas-Peraza, A.C. (2020). English in the linguistic landscape of Thailand: A case study of
public signs in Hat Yai. Language Value, 13(1), 23-57. Jaume I University ePress: Castelló,
Spain. http://www.languagevalue.uji.es.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.2
ISSN 1989-7103
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Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 58-77
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of
hearing students
Ana María Hornero Corisco
ahornero@unizar.es
Pilar Gonzalez-Vera
pilargv@unizar.es
University of Zaragoza, Spain
ABSTRACT
The Spanish University requires all its students to reach a specific level in a foreign language, as part of
the requisites to obtain their degrees. At present, there is a lack of homogeneity in the criteria set for the
assessment of hard of hearing students‟ skills. A preliminary survey reveals the current measures applied
in a number of Spanish universities. Our suggestion is that a uniform listening test should be implemented
for hard of hearing students. The main goal of our research was to check what kind of test is more
adequate for these students. For that purpose, several hard of hearing students did different listening
activities using audiovisual materials that had been previously edited and adapted to their special needs.
They also responded to different question tasks: multiple-choice, true/false, gap-filling. The results throw
some light on the type of test format that should be used with the hard of hearing community.
Keywords: EFL assessment; SDH; hearing-impaired university students; audiovisual texts; listening
comprehension test; Spanish university
I. INTRODUCTION
The Spanish University requires all its students to reach a specific level in a foreign
language
-established by the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages (henceforth CEFR)- as part of the requisites to obtain their degrees in any
discipline. That means all students must pass a language exam designed and conducted
by the universities themselves or, alternatively, take an external exam (such as the
Cambridge English Preliminary (PET) or First (FCE)), to provide evidence of that
command of a foreign language, which is, predominantly, English. Hard of hearing
students must also comply with this requisite.
The University of Zaragoza issues the CertAcles B1 certificate through the Centro
Universitario de Lenguas Modernas. This certificate, approved by the CRUE
(Conferencia de Rectores de las Universidades Españolas), the Government of Aragón
and the Ministry of Education, is issued by Spanish universitiesi. The test assesses
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.3
Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
reading comprehension, listening comprehension, writing and speaking. The details on
the assessment of every skill are shown on the web page of the Centro Universitario de
Lenguas Modernasii.
The Royal Decree 1791/2010 of 30 December, on the status of university students,
establishes that the assessment tests must adapt to the needs of students with
disabilitiesiii, starting with the University Entrance Examination, as specified in the
Royal Decree 1892/2008, 14 Novemberiv. In the case of students entering a Master‟s
degree programme, the university should also provide support, advice and consider the
adaptations required.
After some months of cooperation with the Office of Disability Services at the
University of Zaragoza we had the suspicion that there was lack of homogeneity in the
criteria set for the assessment of hard of hearing candidates in their foreign language
exams nationwide.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
This work has been inspired by previous research on subtitling as well as by the work
carried out by professionals related to students with disabilities. In this line, a useful
starting point has been the Guía de adaptaciones en la Universidad, de la Red de
Servicios de Apoyo a Personas con Discapacidad en la Universidad (SAPDU, 2015)vii,
written in collaboration with the National Organisation of the Spanish Blind (ONCE)
and the CRUE. This association comprises 76 Spanish universities. In the section on
teaching, it recommends the use of subtitles when using videos in class.
We also consulted the Standard UNE 153010 (AENOR, 2012)viii and the analysis of
current practices in subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing in Spain, like the work by
Báez Montero and Fernández Soneira (2010). They undertake a revision of the features
that characterise subtitle recipients (i.e., deaf readers of closed-captions) that present
deep deafness or have a partial loss of hearing.
Our research is aimed not at profound prelocutive deaf students, whose “hearing loss
appears during gestation or within the first two years of life” (Fischer, 2012, p.306).
These students are exempted from taking the listening and oral tests. It is aimed,
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
instead, at postlocutive deaf students, for whom subtitles should work well increasing
the exposure time of the captions on the screen, and at implanted deaf, who may be even
able to read unadapted captions.
Also, helpful has been Pereira (2010), whose contribution intends to check the validity
and functionality of a set of technical, orthotypographical and linguistic criteria for
elaborating subtitles for deaf and hard of hearing adults in Spain. Moreover, Lorenzo‟s
(2010) recommendations serve as a guide to be taken into consideration when drafting
the Spanish Standard for Subtitling for Deaf and Hard of Hearing for digital television.
Her recommendations are distributed into three levels of interest: the technical, the
linguistic and the cultural level. Lorenzo and Pereira also (2011) present some of the
most frequent difficulties met by subtitlers of audiovisual texts for the deaf, highlighting
oral language comprehension problems and comprehension problems derived from
culture and intertextuality. Pazó (2011) supports the issue of adapted subtitles that allow
the deaf and hard of hearing viewers to exercise their right to information. For that
purpose, she explains the need and the advantages of adapted subtitles and describes that
process of adaptation. Varela Romero‟s (2011) analysis makes clear the urgent need of
guides for subtitlers, which should, among other things, contain glossaries of the
commonest vocabulary for deaf viewers as well as information about the structures that
facilitate the decoding of the message. Moreover, Talaván
(2019) points out the
efficiency of the use of subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing
(SDH) as a
pedagogical tool in L2 settings, particularly in the enhancement of listening and writing
skills. These research articles, among others, have been taken into consideration for the
elaboration of our proposal.
III. CASE STUDY
III.1. Participants
The Office for Students with Disabilities at the University of Zaragoza provided 28 hard
of hearing students (all of them had partial hearing loss and used hearing aids or had
cochlear implants). They were divided into two groups: Group A included those with
lower linguistic abilities, and Group B were more mature linguistically. Each of these
groups was then subdivided into two, A1-A2 and B1-B2, so that all students could take
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Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
all test formats, which would allow them to have a broader vision of assessment
methodologies; the results obtained would also be more reliable.
III.2. Methodology
The main interest of this research was to check what kind of test was more adequate for
hard of hearing students. Three types of listening comprehension tests were distributed,
where all the questions were closed, so as to get the most objective results. Our study,
structured in two stages, had as a point of departure the results of the preliminary
survey, which reveals the criteria of the different Spanish universities regarding the
requirements needed in the case of hard of hearing students. Then we proceeded, in the
first place, to carry out a series of listening activities in which different test formats
were used. An analysis followed that included both the comparison of the students‟
results in the activities proposed and a post-questionnaire where students assessed the
activities.
III.2.1. Preliminary survey
In order to verify this, we designed a short survey and the Office of Disability Services
at the University of Zaragoza distributed it to the 58 Spanish universities which belong
to the SAPDU network (Red de Servicios de Apoyo a Personas con Discapacidad en la
Universidad, in Spanish). The aim was to obtain a clearer map of the skills currently
considered in the assessment of the foreign language ability of hard of hearing students.
At this stage, we needed to find out:
a)
The level of command of a foreign language required in each university to
obtain a bachelor degree or to enrol in a Master‟s programme.
b)
What skills hard of hearing students need to pass that exam.
c)
How their listening skills are assessed, and more precisely, whether they
had to take the same listening tests as the other students.
How their oral skills are assessed, and more precisely, whether they had to take the
same oral tests as the other students.
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
III.2.1.a. Answers
A total of eighteen universities, namely, the University of Alicante, the Autonomous
University of Barcelona, the University of Barcelona, two campuses of the Carlos III
University of Madrid, the Catholic University of Valencia, two campuses of the
Complutense University of Madrid, the University of Córdoba, the Jaume I University,
the University of La Coruña, the University of La Rioja, the University of Málaga, the
Miguel Hernández University, the University of Oviedo, the Comillas Pontifical
University, the University of Salamanca, the University of Santiago de Compostela, the
University of Valencia and the University of Zaragoza, participated in the survey, which
represents 31% of the total number addressed. The number of hard of hearing students
ranged from three
(University of Oviedo) to fifty
(University of Valencia and
Complutense University of Madrid, in two campusesv. The results of our observation
were the following:
a)
With regard to the level of command of a foreign language required to
obtain a bachelor‟s degree or to enrol in a Master‟s programme, in the
majority of cases, 15 universities (83.25%) B1 is the requirement. In the
two universities of Barcelona (11.11%) it is B2; only one, the Miguel
Hernández University, answered that no level is required.
b)
There seems to be certain homogeneity in the universities‟ criteria for the
skills assessed in the case of hard of hearing students. Three skills are
tested in the majority of the enquired universities: writing in 17 (94.35%),
listening in 16 (88.8%) and reading in 14 (77.7%), while speaking is only
required in eight universities (44.4%). Two universities did not answer this
question.
c)
For students who do not have a disability the oral production test may
consist of a dialogue or/and the exposition of a subject during
7-10
minutes. As the description of the test points out, two tasks are undertaken
and the test is recordedvi. When asked about how they assess the oral
production skills of their hard of hearing students, the results were: 8
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Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
universities did not answer this question,
7 adapt or modify the test,
according to the level of hearing loss, the adaptation consisting in a time
extension; and 3 universities admitted that the hard of hearing students
take the same test as the rest of students. There is, therefore, no agreement
on the type of oral production test for hard of hearing students.
For students who do not have a disability he listening comprehension test consists in
hearing or watching a minimum of two and a maximum of four documents, where
students have to answer multiple-choice, true/false, matching pair questions. As to how
hard of hearing students are tested in their listening skills, five universities did not
answer this question, three offer a lip-reading test, and three admitted that the hard of
hearing take the same test as the rest of students. The rest adapt or modify the test,
according to the level of hearing loss: the listening test may be replaced with a written
exam, or may be combined with lip-reading; in other cases, the adaptation may consist
in a time extension. The answers of the universities do not specify how they grade this
level of impairment, although, according to the information provided by the Office of
Disability Services at the University of Zaragoza, the procedure for grading is similar in
all universities. All this shows that there is no agreement on the type of listening test for
hard of hearing students. This encouraged us to suggest a method, supported by
previous research on accessibility
(Lorenzo & Pereira,
2011; Pereira,
2010) and
usability of subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing, to assess listening comprehension
skills in hard of hearing students.
III.2.2. The texts
III.2.2.a. Subtitling
The three texts chosen for this study complied with the B1 level of English (according
to the CEFRL)ix. They were documentaries with only one voice, the narrator‟s, dealing
with the Orinoco River, the process of mummification and the Australian landmark
Ulurux. They lasted for three minutes each, following the recommendations of scholars
like Rost (2002) and Talaván (2013), and they were also self-contained so that their
comprehension did not depend on previous scenes and the level of concentration
required was not too high. In all the cases, they were listened three times. The clips on
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
the Orinoco River and the process of mummification were subtitled in English
according to the established conventions of SDH (subtitling for Deaf and Hard of
Hearing) included in the present Spanish regulation UNE-153010 (AENOR, 2012).
Besides this, they were also prepared for lip-readingxi.
The subtitles were positioned near the bottom-centre of the screen. As Pereira (2010,
p.90) points out, “deaf and hard of hearing viewers are used to this format since most
television channels, following the Standard UNE 153010 recommendations, use this
format for non-simultaneous subtitles”. We used an opaque box so that the text would
not fade into the background. Only one colour was used in the clip, as there was only
one voice, the narrator‟s. The subtitling process also included the adaptation of the
reading speed to SDH. According to some studies carried out in the United Kingdom,
the reading ability of prelocutive deaf viewers is one or two words per second, which
means that subtitles should be displayed between one and five seconds longer than for
hearing viewers or postlocutive deaf viewers (Pereira, 2010). Thus, the six-second rule
used in general subtitling that supports a reading speed of 17 cps (characters per second)
was replaced with 15 cps in SDH, in accordance with the UNE-153010 (AENOR,
2012). According to Báez Montero (2010, p.39) “research on the reading levels of the
Deaf reveals that the population that generally finishes compulsory school reaches a
reading-writing level comparable only to the reading-writing level of a hearing
counterpart aged 10”. )urthermore, she points out:
because of educational issues (…) the deaf users‟ command of a second language (L2) or foreign
language in a written version does not allow them to read at the same rate found for users
reading a first language (L1). This is why it will be essential to adapt the speed of the captions to
their needs so that they can grasp the actual message of the captions (Báez Montero, 2010, p.42).
Therefore, we had to opt for the strategy of omission in those cases in which the image
allowed the students to infer the referent. As is well known, overall comprehension of a
subtitled audiovisual text does not rely only on subtitles. For hard of hearing youngsters,
image is probably the main way to build meaning (Lorenzo, 2010, p.146).
We also reduced the number of characters, using „river‟ or „delta‟ as a substitute for „the
Orinoco River‟ or „the Orinoco delta‟, respectively, in order to match the speed-reading
restrictions and facilitate the reading, respecting the technical limits of the subtitle,
being at all times loyal to the content of the video clip (Pazó, 2011). In addition, in the
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Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
clip on the Orinoco we had to cope with another problem: vocabulary. We cannot forget
that the hearing impaired do not have a wide range of vocabulary in their mother tongue
or in their second language. Therefore, the strategy applied in those cases was the
replacement of the complex term
„capybara‟ with an easier one,
„rodent‟. This
substitution technique is frequent in the creation of subtitles for the hard of hearing. The
structure and vocabulary of the adapted subtitle gets closer to their linguistic
competence, making a more complete reading comprehension possible. However, the
adapted subtitle does not always correspond with the audio, leading therefore to the
feeling that some information gets lost. This could possibly be avoided by putting into
effect awareness-raising campaigns (Pazó, 2011).
In the clip about the process of mummification, as in the previous one, we found
problems of relatively hard terminology and reading-speed. Moreover, due to the
somehow technical nature of the text, there were originally more difficult words and
syntax was more complex, too, for this specific audience. Therefore, we had to pay
special attention to the choices made in terms of structures and lexis, making sure that
the chosen elements would be understood by deaf viewers, relating new knowledge
(lexis, cultural referents or structures) to the knowledge that they already had (Lorenzo
2010, p.143). For this reason, the vocabulary was adapted, following the same strategy
as in the clip on the Orinoco. We replaced those terms with others with similar or
identical meaning. For example:
Table 1. Adaptation of the vocabulary in the text on the process of mummification
Original version
Subtitled version
Pouch
Bag
Religious significance
Religious value
Wading bird
Bird
Bill
Beak
Votive offerings
Offerings
Shroud
Cloth
We omitted them whenever possible, as in „imported lead-based pigment‟, which was
reduced to „imported pigment‟.
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About syntax, we cannot forget that the passive voice is too abstract for the hard of
hearing, although not so for regular students. This led us to turn the passive voice into
active or to use the continuous form, simplifying both complex structures and verb
forms, according to the guidelines proposed by the UNE-153010 (AENOR, 2012, p.29),
as shown in Table 2:
Table 2. Adaptation of the syntax in the text on the process of mummification.
Original version
Subtitled version
All moisture was eliminated
eliminating all moisture
Being mummified with a human
mummified with a human
A portrait panel was placed over the face
a portrait was over the face
A large linen cloth was wrapped around the
a large linen cloth wrapped around the mummy
mummy
Very few red mummies are known to exist
very few red mummies exist
All moisture was eliminated
eliminating all moisture
We also considered maintaining those words which could be clearly identified due to
their position in the sentence. This was the case of „very few red mummies are known to
exist‟, in which, instead of subtitling it as „we know very few mummies‟ our option was
„very few red mummies exist‟, keeping the word „exist‟ at the end and avoiding
confusion in the listener, who could have identified it in the original soundtrack.
As far as the reading-speed problem is concerned, in the clip on the process of
mummification the solution was given by the video itself, as there were long pauses
while the process described was portrayed. This gave us more time and extra frames for
the subtitles.
III.2.2.b. Lip-reading
The lip-reading test was carried out with small groups of three to five students in a
peaceful and well-lit classroom. The preparation of the lip-reading was based on the
instructions followed by supervisors who administer versions of the Cambridge PET
listening tests for the hearing impaired. It required previous training, following carefully
the indications provided in the supervisor‟s booklet. The reader asked the students to
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Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
read first the instructions of the test. She stood facing the students at a short distance, so
that they could easily read her lips. The reader had trained the reading, marking pauses
along the text with asterisks. Those pauses allowed the students to read the questions or
check their answers. The intonation of the reading sounded as natural as possible. The
examiner read the texts three times with a careful articulation, pausing at the asterisks.
When she stopped, the students had time to read the questions again or take notes.
III.2.3. The tests
Three different test formats, multiple-choice questions, true or false, and fill-in-the-
gaps, were chosen to test the students‟ skills with documentaries about the Orinoco, the
process of mummification and the Uluru, respectively. While in the first and the second
case students had to make inferences, gathering different pieces of information in order
to answer the questions, in the third test, they were asked more specific information.
III.2.4. Implementation
Students of Groups A1 and B1 watched the subtitled clip on the Orinoco three times.
Simultaneously, the students of Groups A2 and B2 took the same test using the method
of lip-reading in a different room. Once finished, the former subgroups took the test on
the process of mummification but this time with the lip-reading method and the latter
with subtitles. Finally, all the students took the listening test on the Uluru and watched
the video without subtitles three times.
III.3. Results and Discussion
The results in the multiple-choice format test based on the clip of the Orinoco revealed
that Group A (See Figure 1) behaved unevenly in the lip-reading test, none obtaining
more than 4 out of 10: 0 (40%), 2 (40%), 4 (20%); their results were much better in the
test based on the subtitled clip, in which 90% obtained a score of 4 or more: 0 (10%), 4
(30%), 6 (40%) and 8 (20%).
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
Figure 1. Results Group A. Orinoco.
In general, Group B (See Figure 2) obtained better results than A, scoring between 6
and 10 in the lip-reading test of the Orinoco: 6 (25%), 8 (50%) and 10 (25%), a fact that
could be expected, as this group was more mature linguistically. Moreover, the results
in the subtitled test improved those of the lip-reading test: 8 (50%) and 10 (50%), that
is, the lowest score was 8; and, consequently, the scores obtained in the subtitled test
were higher in both groups.
60
50
40
Ori
30
Ori
20
10
0
Figure 2. Results Group B. Orinoco.
In the case of the test with a True/False format based on the clip about the process of
mummification, Group A (See Figure 3) distributed its scores in the lip-reading test as
follows: 0 (10%), 4 (30%), 6 (20%), 8 (20%), 10 (20%), which means that 60%
achieved 6 or more. The results for lip-reading were better in this text than in the
Orinoco text. This could be due to the format itself, as students had to choose between
two options, whereas in the previous format they had four. By contrast, the results in the
test based on the subtitled clip did not show remarkable differences in Group A
compared to the lip-reading test, although they were slightly better here: 2 (20%), 4
(20%), 6 (40%), 8 (10%) and 10 (10%).
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50
40
30
Mummifica
20
Mummifica
10
0
Figure 3. Results Group A. The process of mummification.
It is worth drawing attention to the distribution of the scores in Group B (See Figure 4).
Even though this group of students was stronger than A, their results in the lip-reading
test were even weaker than in Group A. None of the students in Group B scored more
than 4: 0 (50%) and 4 (50%), all of them failing in the lip-reading test on this occasion.
Nevertheless, all Group B students who took the test using the adapted subtitled version
succeeded, scoring 6 or more: 6 (25%), 8 (50%) and 10 (25%). They did far better than
with the lip-reading test.
60
50
40
Mummifica
30
Mummifica
20
10
0
Figure 4. Results Group B. The process of mummification.
The third test was a short documentary about the Uluru rock, with no subtitles on the
screen. The students had to fill in the blank with one word that was said in the video.
Group A (See Figure 5) was mainly lost, as the results indicate: 75% scored 0, 15%
scored 2 and 10% scored 4. Although Group B (See Figure 6) obtained better results,
they were by no means good, being concentrated on 2 and 4 and amounting to 75%
together: 0 (12.5%), 2 (37.5%), 4 (37.5%) and 6 (12.5%). This confirms that Group B
was more mature linguistically and it may throw some light on the type of format that
should not be used with the hard of hearing community. The overall results were too
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
low in both groups and the lack of adaptations let the hard of hearing students in a
position of inferiority with respect to hearing students, as they are confronted with a
double problem: the comprehension of the text and its audibility.
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 5. Results Group A. Uluru.
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 6. Results Group B. Uluru.
III.4. Final Questionnaire
Once the activities were done, students had to complete a final questionnaire (Table 3)
concerning their opinion about the activities carried out. Its aim was to complement the
information received from the objective test results. Thus, students were asked:
Table 3. Final questionnaire
1. Which of the three tests has been easier for you?
a) Lip-reading
b) Video
c) Subtitled video
2. Have you previously done any listening comprehension activities in a foreign language?
a) Yes
b) No
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3.
If your answer was YES, select which method you have previously used for the listening
comprehension activity (you can mark more than one answer):
a) Lip-reading
b) Subtitled video
c) Audio track
4.
Have you ever tested your listening skills?
a) Yes
b) No
5.
Select which method you have used for the assessment of listening comprehension:
a) Lip-reading
b) Subtitled video
c) Audio track
6.
What has been most difficult for you in each text? Number from most difficult (1) to least
difficult (3) in each case:
Text about the Orinoco river
-
Vocabulary
-
Grammatical structures
-
Text speed
Text about the mummification process
-
Vocabulary
-
Grammatical structures
-
Text speed
Text about Mount Uluru
-
Vocabulary
-
Grammatical structures
-
Text speed
7.
What kinds of questions have you found most difficult? Number from most difficult (1) to least
difficult (3) in each case:
-
Multiple choice
-
Fill the gaps
-
True/False
The final questionnaire brought together the opinion of the students about the test
format they liked most. The preference for the subtitled video clearly stood out in both
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
groups. However, Group A also considered the option of lip-reading, even though in
very low percentages. When asked what type of test format was the easiest, the
preferences varied, depending on the group. In Group A 66.6% opted for the True/False
format, whereas in Group B, more mature students, their preferences were divided.
Overall, there was a common agreement that the most difficult format type was that of
filling in the gaps.
)inally, as for the students‟ previous experience with listening skills, in the case of
Group A 80% admitted they had never done any listening comprehension activity in
class. An even higher percentage (90%) was also for those that had never taken a
listening test and the method used with those who had done so (10%) had been the
traditional test based on the listening of an audio track. In contrast with them, 62.5%
students in Group B had done listening comprehension activities in class -this may have
been another reason for their better results, too.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The preliminary survey completed by 18 universities revealed that in 83.25% of them
the level of a foreign language required to obtain a degree is B1. In that exam on the
level of a foreign language the assessment of the listening skills is required in 88.8% of
the cases. But there is no agreement as to how those listening skills are tested in the case
of hard of hearing students. It seems that universities tend to adapt the test, according to
the level of impairment. Our suggestion is that a listening test should be implemented
for hard of hearing students, provided they have partial hearing loss and use hearing
aids or have cochlear implants. Students with severe hearing loss should ask the Office
for Students with Disabilities at their universities to prepare a curriculum
accommodation plan. If the student succeeds in the assessment of the other skills, s/he
will receive a certificate saying that „the candidate is exempt from satisfying the full
range of assessment objectives in the examination‟.
The main goal of our research was to check what kind of test is more adequate for these
students. For that purpose, they did different listening activities using audiovisual
materials that had previously been edited and adapted to the students‟ special needs.
They also responded to different question tasks: multiple-choice, true/false, gap-filling.
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The results show that in the multiple-choice format test the scores obtained in the
subtitled test were higher in both groups. In the True/False format test, all Group B
students who took the test using the adapted subtitled version succeeded. They did far
better than with the lip-reading test. Last, the third documentary showed no subtitles on
the screen and a gap-filling format test. The low results in this case may throw some
light on the type of test format that should not be used with hard of hearing students.
The final questionnaire concerning the students‟ personal opinion about the activities
carried out matched their preference for the subtitled video clip with the better results
obtained in it. It also confirmed that the most difficult test format, the gap-filling format,
was regarded as the least favoured one, possibly because it involves a higher cognitive
effort. Therefore, we would recommend not using it in the case of hard of hearing
students.
We agree with Báez Montero (2010) that the community of hard of hearing students
“demands and requires the use of captions, not only as a source of information but also
as a medium for overcoming the communication barriers which the members of their
community have been encountering for centuries and which need to be abolished”
(p.27). We firmly believe that the environment of the hard of hearing community must
provide all the necessary tools to overcome the communication barriers they meet on a
daily basis. Subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing (SDH), moreover, foster their
learning of oral languages, as they rely on another semiotic code, the image on the
screen (Varela Romero, 2011). Our concern about the needs of these students also
motivated our participation in the preparation of the Protocolo de adaptación referido a
la acreditación del nivel B1 en lengua extranjera: inglés específico para personas con
discapacidad auditiva for the University of Zaragoza.
With this goal in mind, we can make the best of the technical resources available and
adapt them to their users‟ needs. Moreover, subtitles for the hard of hearing should be
regarded not merely as “an aid to understanding the audiovisual text but also as an
enjoyable system to learn oral languages” (Lorenzo, 2010, p.146). Universities should
count on professionals that create these adapted subtitles or train their evaluators so that
they can make the adaptations required.
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Ana María Hornero Corisco and Pilar González-Vera
Former research and the results obtained in our tests support our suggestion to promote
the use of adapted subtitled video clips for hard of hearing students who need to pass
the level of a foreign language required in a Spanish university. The use of audiovisual
texts for that purpose would help them overcome the barrier of a foreign oral language
with the aid of a visual support, something that is not provided by the traditional
listening to an audio track. The fact that image is for many deaf and hard of hearing
probably the main way to build meaning cannot be overlooked. Moreover, the student
would face a more realistic text, more in line with the situations s/he has to deal with
every day. The next step would be to make it extensive to the teaching and development
of oral skills in the classroom. Taking a step further, our suggestion would be to
encourage all universities to use these tools and materials for the assessment of the
standards of competence required in foreign languages. This would open the way to
homogeneity in the type of assessment of the skills and the number of skills assessed in
the Spanish university.
Notes
i
See
general
information
about
CertAcles
on
https://culm.xxx.es/sites/culm.
xxx.es/files/users/jjc/1._que_es_un_certacles.pdf
ii
See general information on https://culm.xxx.es/sites/culm.xxx.es/files/users/jjc/7.1._certacles_b1_-
_descripcion_formal_del_examen.pdf
iii
“Art culo
2 .
studiantes con discapacidad. Las pruebas de evaluación deberán adaptarse a las
necesidades de los estudiantes con discapacidad, procediendo los centros y los departamentos a las
adaptaciones metodológicas, temporales y espaciales precisas”.
iv Real Decreto 1892/2008, de 14 de noviembre, por el que se regulan las condiciones para el acceso a las
enseñanzas universitarias oficiales de grado y los procedimientos de admisión a las universidades
públicas españolas (BOE 24 de noviembre de 2008):
“Art culo 19. studiantes que presentan alg n tipo de discapacidad. Estas medidas podrán
consistir en la adaptación de los tiempos, la elaboración de modelos especiales de examen y la
puesta a disposición del estudiante de los medios materiales y humanos, de las asistencias y
apoyos y de las ayudas t cnicas que precise para la realizaci n de la prueba de acceso, as como
en la garantía de accesibilidad de la información y la comunicación de los procesos y la del
recinto o espacio físico donde esta se desarrolle”.
v A word of caution: the number of hearing impaired students given by the universities that filled out the
survey may not be the real facts: some students never go to the Office for Students with Disabilities or
never reveal their special needs to the institution.
vi
See
the
formal
description
of
the
test
at
https://culm.xxx.es/sites/culm.xxx.es/files/users/jjc/7.1._certacles_b1_descripcion_formal_del_examen.pd
f
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Audiovisual translation tools for the assessment of hard of hearing students
vii https://ouad.xxx.es/sites/ouad.xxx.es/files/users/ouad/Guia%20de%20adaptaciones_DIGITAL.pdf
viii Current studies of accessibility in immersive media show that “home users are willing to accept the
implementation of new features in SDH in immersive content”, which might result in the introduction of
modifications in the Spanish subtitling standard UNE 153010 (Agulló & Matamala, 2019).
ix One of the authors has been responsible for years for the preparation of the English test of the
University of Zaragoza Entrance Examination, which assesses different competences in that level).
x As pointed out earlier, the listening skills of regular students may be assessed with audiovisual texts,
although in this case dialogues among characters are expected.
xi The authors prepared the subtitles for the videos, as well as the lip-readings They were specifically
produced for this study. The idea would be to have a number of subtitled videos prepared to test deaf
students at the University of Zaragoza, a service which would be provided by the Office for Students with
Disabilities.
REFERENCES
AENOR. (2012). Actualizaciones de la norma UNE-153010. Subtitulado para personas
sordas y personas con discapacidad auditiva. Retrieved from
http://www.aenor.es/aenor/normas/normas/fichanorma.asp?tipo=N&codigo=N0
049426#.V02v9lddKEe
Agulló, B. & Matamala, A. (2019). Subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing in
immersive environments: results from a focus group. The Journal of Specialised
Translation, 32, 217-234.
Báez Montero, I. & Fernández Soneira, A. (2010). Spanish deaf people as recipients of
closed captioning. In A. Matamala and P. Orero (Eds.), Listening to Subtitles:
Subtitles for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Listening to Subtitles (pp.25-44).
Bern: Peter Lang.
Fischer, M. B. (2012). Translating fictional dialogue for children and young people.
Berlin: Frank & Timme GmbH.
Lorenzo, L. & A. Pereira. (2011). Deaf children and their access to audiovisual texts:
educational failure and the helplessness of the subtitles. In E. Di Giovanni. (Ed.),
Diálogos intertextuales 5: Between the Text and the Receiver: Translation and
Accessibility (pp.185-201). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
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Lorenzo, L. (2010). Criteria for elaborating subtitles for deaf and hard of hearing
children in Spain; A guide of good practice. In Matamala, A. and P. Orero
(Eds.), Listening to Subtitles: Subtitles for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Listening to Subtitles (pp.139-147). Bern: Peter Lang.
Pazó Lorenzo, I. (2011). La adaptación del subtitulado para personas sordas”. In E. Di
Giovanni (Ed.), Diálogos intertextuales 5: Between the Text and the Receiver:
Translation and Accessibility (pp.203-215). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Pereira, A. (2010). Criteria for elaborating subtitles for deaf and hard of hearing adults
in Spain: description of a case study. In A. Matamala and P. Orero (Eds.),
Listening to Subtitles: Subtitles for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (pp.87-102).
Bern: Peter Lang.
Royal Decree No. 1892/2008 of 14 November, establishing the conditions for access to
official university degrees and admission procedures to Spanish public
universities [Real Decreto 1892/2008, de 14 de noviembre, por el que se regulan
las condiciones para el acceso a las enseñanzas universitarias oficiales de
grado y los procedimientos de admisión a las universidades públicas
españolas]. Retrieved from https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-
2008-18947
Royal Decree No. 1791/2010 of 30 December, which approves the Statute of the
University Student [Real Decreto 1791/2010, de 30 de diciembre, por el que se
aprueba el Estatuto del Estudiante Universitario]. Retrieved from
http://sid.usal.es/leyes/discapacidad/15909/3-1-5/real-decreto-1791-2010-de-30-
de-diciembre-por-el-que-se-aprueba-el-estatuto-del-estudiante-universitario.aspx
Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and Researching Listening. New York: Routledge.
SAPDU. (2015). Guía de adaptaciones en la Universidad, de la Red de Servicios de
Apoyo a Personas con Discapacidad en la Universidad. Retrieved from
http://sapdu.unizar.es/sites/default/files/Guia%20de%20adaptaciones_DIGITAL.
pdf
Talaván Zanón, N. (2013). La subtitulación en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras.
Barcelona: Octaedro.
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Talaván Zanón, N. (2019). Using subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing as an
innovative pedagogical tool in the language class. IJES, 19(1), 21-40.
Varela Romero, S. (2011). Subtitulado para sordos: camino hacia una normativa.
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Received: 23 January 2020
Accepted 07 December 2020
Cite this article as:
Hornero Corisco, A. & Gonzalez-Vera, P. (2020). Audiovisual translation tools for the
assessment of hard of hearing students. Language Value, 13(1), 58-77. Jaume I University ePress:
Castelló, Spain. http://www.languagevalue.uji.es.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.3
ISSN 1989-7103
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77
Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 78-102
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An
evaluation of some pedagogical materials
Marta Serrano van der Laan
marta.serrano.vanderlaan@gmail.com
Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Spain
ABSTRACT
A large receptive vocabulary could have a significant impact on scores in the IELTS Academic Reading
test. However, the lack of official information about vocabulary in this test raises questions regarding how
lexis is selected and approached in existing IELTS training materials. This paper evaluates three books
issued by leading ELT publishers to assess how far they effectively help learn vocabulary for the
Academic Reading test. First, the lexis in the test is identified based on what can be gleaned from official
information and available research. Then, the three books are evaluated using a checklist of criteria
relevant to the acquisition of this lexis. The results suggest that the materials investigated may not
contribute enough towards the acquisition of vocabulary useful for success in the Academic Reading test.
This paper offers some important insights into some shortcomings of current IELTS training materials
and points to ways of surmounting them.
Keywords: IELTS; reading; materials; evaluation; acquisition; vocabulary
I. INTRODUCTION
Passing IELTS Academic with an overall score of 7.0 (C1 on the Common European
Framework of Reference (CEFR)) is a goal for many students worldwide. The IELTS
(International English Language Testing System) Academic test is used by universities
worldwide to determine whether candidates‟ proficiency in English will enable them to
study in English-medium environments. An IELTS score above 6.0 is usually required
for admission.
I.1. A strategy for success in IELTS
Many candidates find themselves in the need of attaining an overall IELTS score that is
above their current level of proficiency, in a limited period of time dictated by
university application procedures. Candidates also tend to approach the exam with
different levels of ability in the four language skills. As the overall IELTS score is the
average of the scores attained in each of the four discrete skills tests that make up the
Language Value, ISSN 1989-7103
78
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.4
Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An evaluation of some pedagogical materials
exam, good results in one or more tests can significantly raise overall exam scores.
Thus, it can be a useful strategy to dedicate efforts to improving results in the test in
which success is most likely. One of the tests in which candidates attain their highest
scores, regardless of overall level (IELTS, 2020), is the Academic Reading (AR) paper.
In AR, candidates must answer 40 questions about three long, real-world texts in one
hour.
One way of improving reading scores could be by developing receptive, or recognition,
vocabulary knowledge. Research has established the key role of vocabulary knowledge
in reading
(Laufer & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, 2010; Nation, 2013; Schmitt, Jiang &
Grabe, 2011) and relevant literature suggests that vocabulary can be learnt quite quickly
for receptive purposes (Nation, 2013; Sökmen, 1997; Webb & Nation, 2017). Although
not specifically assessed, knowledge of vocabulary seems to play a key role in the AR
test. A close inspection of published practice testsi reveals that answering the majority
of the questions requires the recognition of synonymy and paraphrase. Additionally, the
length and density of the texts mean that a lack of vocabulary may constitute a major
handicap in this high-stakes language examination. Therefore, increasing receptive
vocabulary size could positively impact reading scores and as a consequence overall
scores could be raised.
I.2. Framing the problem
In order to increase the size of candidates‟ receptive vocabulary for success in IELTS
AR, it is necessary to know what vocabulary is involved. However, guidance as to the
vocabulary to study for IELTS AR is scarce. The test is not based on a set vocabulary
syllabus, and the IELTS consortium divulges little information regarding vocabulary
useful towards passing the test successfully. At the same time, existing literature on
vocabulary in IELTS mainly regards the IELTS Speaking and Writing tests. At the
same time, IELTS coursebooks usually include sections on vocabulary, and some
textbooks dedicated to vocabulary for IELTS are also available. Given the dearth of
research and information about vocabulary in this test, it is unclear how these materials
are informed. Furthermore, recent literature suggests that coursebooks often seem to
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lack a solid grounding in principle and familiarity with state-of-the-art research on
vocabulary (Schmitt, 2019).
I.3. Aim and scope
This paper critically evaluates three books that claim to help learners acquire vocabulary
towards IELTS. The aim of the study is to understand whether these books effectively
provide exam candidates with the vocabulary they need for success in the AR test. To
this purpose, a checklist was developed and used to evaluate how far the books address
the features of AR vocabulary that can be gleaned from official information and
available literature. The checklist also examines the books‟ grounding in established
pedagogical principle
The outcome of the evaluation suggests that the books examined fall short of their
claims due to their unsatisfactory grounding in research and pedagogical principle. This
paper provides some important insights into the limitations of current vocabulary study
materials for IELTS. The results presented here may usefully inform future IELTS
vocabulary learning materials.
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Although it is well-researched that vocabulary is crucial for reading (Alderson, 2000;
Schmitt, Jiang & Grabe, 2011), this paper evidences that only a surprisingly small body
of literature is available on vocabulary in the IELTS AR test. Nonetheless, relevant
information about the lexis in the test can also be learnt from some studies on other
aspects of IELTS. This section provides an overview of research that provides key
insights into vocabulary in IELTS AR and that underpins the present investigation.
II.1. Vocabulary and reading
Research indicates that reading comprehension is dependent on high percentages of
vocabulary knowledge (Hu & Nation, 2000; Milton, 2009). In fact, Alderson (2000,
p.35) asserts that vocabulary knowledge is
“the single best predictor of text
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comprehension” among the many other variables that are also involved. Knowledge of
vocabulary applied successfully to reading implies the possession of a large receptive
lexicon, that is, a strong form-meaning knowledge (Schmitt, 2014). As aspects of
deeper word knowledge such as morphology or collocation are provided or clarified by
the context, depth of vocabulary knowledge may be of less relevance (Schmitt, 2014).
However, phonological knowledge may be highly relevant to reading as phonological
memory may play a greater role than has previously been considered (Lin, 2019;
Milton, 2009; Walter, 2008) Awareness of derivation may also have a bearing on
reading, as research indicates that knowledge of a stem word is no guarantee of
recognition of its derived forms (Schmitt & Zimmerman, 2002).
A further element of vocabulary knowledge that affects reading is formulaic language,
that is, the tendency of vocabulary to take the shape of phraseological units of two or
more words, rather than consist in single words connected syntactically (Schmitt, 2013).
Martinez and Murphy (2011) showed that formulaic units can be the source of
incomprehension, as they are often semantically opaque and readers may not recognize
them as units of meaning. Thus, knowledge and awareness of formulaic language is key
to successful reading.
It would seem, therefore, that a good receptive knowledge of vocabulary should be
highly useful towards passing the IELTS AR test. This lexicon should be composed of
key individual words and opaque formulaic or multiword units (MWUs) (Martinez and
Schmitt 2012). This strong sight knowledge should be supported by some aspects of
deeper vocabulary knowledge such as phonology and morphology.
II.2. Vocabulary and IELTS AR
Vocabulary in IELTS has received little attention overall in the literature to date.
However, a few specific studies are available. Bax (2013) found that successful AR
candidates were more lexically proficient and better able to match words in the
questions with synonyms in the text than less successful candidates. Milton, Wade &
Hopkins (2010) correlated IELTS scores to vocabulary size test results, finding a very
strong relationship between receptive vocabulary size and the AR test. Moreover, they
found that 48% of variance in scores in this test can be explained by orthographic, or
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sight, vocabulary size, making this the possibly most determining factor for success in
the AR test. This suggests that attention to orthographic knowledge of vocabulary is
highly relevant for the AR test.
Relevant insights about vocabulary in IELTS AR can also be gained from work not
specifically investigating vocabulary. In their study of how AR test materials are
developed, Green and Hawkey (2011) show that source texts for AR reading passages
tend to be more general than academic. Even after adaptation to the IELTS test format,
the texts seem uncharacteristic of standard academic texts, as they contain larger than
typical percentages of high-frequency vocabulary
(Green & Hawkey, 2011; Weir
Hawkey, Green, Unaldi & Devi, 2009). This suggests that focusing strictly on academic
vocabulary is not useful when approaching the AR test. In fact, it can be deduced from
Schmitt and Schmitt (2014) that concentrating on general high-to mid-frequency lexis
would be more appropriate, as their seminal paper shows that this vocabulary tends to
be prevalent in non-specialist, university-level texts. The relevance of these frequency
levels is corroborated by the findings in Drummond
(2018), which reveal that
candidates attaining an overall IELTS score of 6.5 to 7.0 may have a vocabulary size
that affords them approximately 90% text coverage. According to Schmitt and Schmitt
(2014), such coverage is granted by knowledge of the first 3- to 4000 most frequent
words in English, i.e. high- and early mid-frequency vocabulary.
II.3. Vocabulary learning and published pedagogical materials
Classroom experience and research show that many learners struggle to acquire
substantial amounts of vocabulary, even over time (Henriksen and Danelund 2015), and
often have a poor knowledge of high-frequency vocabulary (Lawley 2010). One reason
for this situation may lie in the shortcomings of published learning materials. In his
recent research agenda, Schmitt (2019) lists investigating why these materials so often
do not reflect current vocabulary teaching principles. To mention just a few of the
numerous studies that reveal such deficiencies, Lawley (2010) and Acosta Moncada et
al. (2016) found that the coursebooks they analyzed dedicated a surprising amount of
space to less frequent lexis, to the detriment of high-frequency vocabulary. O‟Loughlin
(2012) and Demetriou (2017) also found that extensively used coursebooks contained
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little frequent vocabulary and overall approached it unsystematically, often only
providing one encounter with the target items.
Given these premises, prospects appear inauspicious also for published vocabulary-
learning materials aimed at IELTS. A few dedicated books are currently available on the
market, as are some IELTS training materials that contain a section on vocabulary.
These materials would seem to merit close inspection for a number of reasons. Firstly,
they may effectively be the only existing guides to learning vocabulary for IELTS,
given the dearth of research and information available on vocabulary and the exam. At
the same time, this very lack of information gives rise to questions regarding how the
pedagogical choices in these books are informed. Moreover, assessment materials such
as those mentioned above outline potential weaknesses that should be verified also in
these materials.
III. METHODOLOGY
This investigation sets out to answer the following research question: Are existing
published vocabulary learning materials for IELTS useful towards increasing receptive
vocabulary size with a view to successfully passing the AR test? In this section the
methodology and the materials used to answer this question are described.
III.1. The books evaluated
Three books were selected for the present investigation (See Table 1). Four main criteria
were used to select these books. Firstly, all three were issued by well-established
English Language Teaching (ELT) publishers. This suggests that they are pedagogically
sound and developed by experts in the field and therefore valid materials for IELTS
candidates. Secondly, the presence on an international level of all three publishers
means that the books are available to students in many countries and that it is therefore
useful to examine their content. Thirdly, the three books have good face-value, in that
they look clearly structured, cover a variety of IELTS topics, seem to present and
practice vocabulary in contexts and exercises that are relevant to the exam, and provide
an array of apparently useful ancillary material such as vocabulary lists, revision tests
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and exam tips. A final criterion for selecting these books for evaluation was that they
seem to be aimed at a target level of IELTS 6.0 and above, which tend to be the scores
from which IELTS is accepted in university application processes around the world,
thus making the books relevant to IELTS candidates.
Table 1. The books evaluated.
Year of
Referred to in
Title
Authors
Publisher
publication
text as
Vocabulary for
IELTS. Self-study
Cambridge
Cullen, P.
2008
VFIS
vocabulary
University Press
practice
Focusing on
Lindeck, J.,
Macmillan
IELTS Reading
Greenwood, J., &
Education
2011
FIRW
and Writing skills
O‟Sullivan, K.
Australia
(2nd ed.)
Vocabulary for
Williams, A.
Collins
2012
VFI
IELTS
All three books are directed at both IELTS Academic and IELTS General Training.
VFIS (Cullen,
2008) and VFI
(Williams,
2012) approach the target vocabulary
topically, rather than by individual test. The items are presented and practiced in
different exam-type contexts throughout the units, but no indication is provided as to
which items or learning strategies might be specifically useful for each of the four
different tests in the exam. FIRW (Lindeck, Greenwood & O‟Sullivan, 2011) is aimed
at developing reading and writing skills for IELTS. Vocabulary is dealt with in two
brief subsections in the unit on reading, where some suggestions are made about
identifying and learning useful lexis, but no specific words are taught.
VFIS (Cullen, 2008) teaches about 1,211 lexical items including MWUs, organized into
twenty topic-based units, with a test every five units. Lists of all the target items in each
unit are provided at the back of the book. The vocabulary is taught through a variety of
exercises including exam-type tasks, and listening and reading activities. A further five
units close the book and focus on vocabulary learning skills, and on vocabulary for the
Writing tests. The book boasts the label „CEF (Common European Framework) B2-
C1‟, but it is not clear whether these are starting-out or target levels.
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VFI (Williams, 2012) covers about 277 different words through 18 topic-based units,
with two revision units. The input does not include MWUs, and a complete word list is
not supplied. By contrast, the book provides a list of common collocations for most of
the target vocabulary. Each input unit focuses on 14-15 words connected to the unit
topic. The target words are presented at the beginning of every unit using a dictionary-
entry format for each word, providing part of speech, a definition and one or two
example sentences. The subsequent sections of each unit practice these words through a
variety of exercises, including listening, reading and exam-type tasks. The book targets
students at an IELTS level of 5.0 - 5.5 who are aiming at a score of 6.0+.
FIRW approaches vocabulary for the Reading tests in two subsections (Lindeck, et al.,
2011). Building up your vocabulary (pp.43-44) offers some brief suggestions on how to
learn vocabulary in general and what type of lexis to look out for. In Identifying how
words relate to each other (pp.44-47) learners are advised to notice relationships
between words such as hyponymy, meronymy and collocation. The aim of these
subsections is therefore not to teach a specific list of words, but rather to outline some
useful strategies to learn vocabulary for IELTS Reading. No level is specified, but the
presence of lengthy explanations and the choice of language used seem to target
students beyond an intermediate level of proficiency.
III.2. The checklist
A simple checklist was developed to analyse the usefulness of the three books towards
learning vocabulary that will help pass the AR test at a band level above 6.0 (See Table
2).
Table 2. Checklist for evaluation
CHECKLIST
1. Does the book teach the 1 - 8000 most frequent words in English, including multiword units (MWUs)?
2. Is the vocabulary-learning program clearly defined?
3. Is a strong form-meaning knowledge developed?
4. Is morphology addressed?
5. Is phonology addressed?
6. Is synonymy and antonymy addressed?
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7. Are clear explanations provided regarding how to use the book?
8. Is feedback provided?
9. Is repetition facilitated and encouraged?
10. Are vocabulary learning strategies suggested?
The checklist takes inspiration from materials analyses such as Tomlinson and
Masuhara (2013), Tomlinson (2010), and Reinders and Lewis (2006) and the questions
are grounded in the following pedagogical and theoretical principles:
frequency should be a key consideration when selecting vocabulary
(Nation, 2013; Schmitt, 2008).
vocabulary does not only involve individual words (Martinez & Schmitt,
2012)
receptive vocabulary knowledge includes morphological and
phonological awareness (Walter, 2008; Gardner, 2013)
learners need to be aware of the dimensions of the task ahead in order to
set targets and plan their work (Dörnyei, 2001; Little, 2003; Schmitt
2008)
autonomous learning strategies need to be fostered as the classroom
typically does not afford sufficient time to deal with the amount of
learning required (Webb & Nation, 2017).
III.3. Procedure
The target words in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) are listed at the back of the book, while in VFI
(Williams, 2012) they are at the beginning of each unit. These words were counted
using the Microsoft Word word count tool in order to determine the books‟ learning
load. As this tool cannot identify formulaic units as single lexical items, the components
of the phrases and two-word compounds in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) were counted as
individual words. This was not considered a miscount, as many of these components are
also dealt with individually in the books. Furthermore, many of the formulaic units
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covered are semantically transparent, making it useful to understand their individual
components. Nonetheless, the phrases and compounds were also counted as individual
units, totalling 300.
In order to establish the levels of frequency of the vocabulary in VFIS (Cullen, 2008)
and VFI (Williams, 2012), all the words were processed through the frequency analysis
tool Compleat Web VP BNC-COCA 1-25 (Cobb, n.d.). This web tool matches the
words inputted to corpus-based frequency lists, identifying the level of frequency of
each word. Some of the words used as examples in FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011) were
also profiled on this tool. The phrases in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) were checked manually
against the PHRASE list (Martinez & Schmitt, 2012).This is a list of the 505 most
frequent semantically non-transparent MWUs in English. The aim was to assess the
usefulness of the phrases included, given the relevance of frequency to vocabulary
learning. The results and implications of this frequency profiling are discussed in
Section IV below
IV. THE EVALUATION: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Having examined the books known as VFIS (Cullen, 2008), VFI (Williams, 2012) and
FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011), the results obtained can be observed in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Results of the evaluation.
VFIS
FIRW
VFI
(Cullen,
(Lindeck et
(Williams,
2008)
al., 2011)
2012)
1. Does the book teach the 1 - 8000 most frequent
words in English, including multiword units
(MWUs)?
2. Is the vocabulary-learning program clearly
defined?
3. Is a strong form-meaning knowledge developed?
()
4. Is morphology addressed?
()
()
()
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5. Is phonology addressed?
()
()
6. Is synonymy and antonymy addressed?
()
()
7. Are clear explanations provided regarding how to
use the book?
8. Is feedback provided?
()
9. Is repetition facilitated and encouraged?
()
()
10. Are vocabulary learning strategies suggested?
()
()
()
IV.1. Question 1: Does the book teach the 1 - 8000 most frequent words in English,
including MWUs?
As argued above, the AR passages can be predicted to require knowledge of high- to
mid-frequency vocabulary, i.e. the 8,000 most frequent words in English. Since research
has established that language is highly formulaic, and that opaque formulaic units can
challenge reading comprehension, knowledge of MWUs (Martinez & Schmitt, 2012) at
similar levels of frequency should also be necessary.
The vocabulary profiles of the words in VFIS and VFI show that they largely belong to
the appropriate frequency range. However, the books only target a small number of
vocabulary items. No explanation is provided as to the choice of these particular items,
no reference is made to the (rest of the) 8,000 most frequent words in English, and the
concept of frequency and its key role as identifier of usefulness (Schmitt, 2010) is not
mentioned.
FIRW indirectly refers to frequency by dividing vocabulary into versatile words
(Lindeck et al., 2011, p.43) which “can be used in many different contexts”, and specific
words (Lindeck et al., 2011, p.43) “[of] very limited use, as they are usually used in one
field or context only”. The vocabulary profile of the example versatile words reveals
that they fall into the 1-5k range, i.e. high- to mid-frequency according to Schmitt and
Schmitt (2014). Thus, versatile would seem a suitable name for these words, and, given
their relevance for the AR test, prompting students to learn them is clearly appropriate.
However, learners are again not informed of how many versatile words there are in
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English, nor that research-based, pedagogical lists of versatile words exist and are
available free of cost on the web, for example the frequency lists published on Compleat
Lextutor (n.d.).
VFIS (Cullen, 2008) includes 50 MWUs, and VFI (Williams, 2012) none. Of the
MWUs in VFIS (Cullen, 2008), only 15 appear in the PHRASE list (Martinez &
Schmitt, 2012). Why such a large amount of low-frequency phrases are included is
unclear, particularly as high frequency formulaic units are often poorly known even at
more advanced levels (Martinez & Murphy, 2011). FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011) touches
on formulaic language in the section on collocation, which is part of a larger section
discussing word relationships. Being able to identify these is presented as an important
reading skill. Collocations are initially approached as a two-word pair phenomenon,
with examples such as ask a question, interested in (Lindeck et al.,
2011, p.47).
Subsequently, formulaic units, such as hold the key or facing stiff competition, are
shown as further examples of collocation (Lindeck et al., 2011, p.47). Given their
semantic opacity, these phrases qualify as MWUs and could therefore more profitably
approached as units of meaning rather than as a sequence of related words (Martinez &
Schmitt, 2012). No distinction is made between the two types of formulaic unit and no
indication is given as to which might be more relevant to learn for reading purposes (i.e.
MWUs).
IV.2. Question 2: Is the vocabulary-learning programme clearly defined?
Setting goals is key towards ensuring a principled and systematic learning program,e
(Nation, 2013), determining the scope of the task (Schmitt, 2008), developing and
maintaining motivation (Dörnyei, 2001), and supporting autonomous learning (Little,
2003). VFIS
(Cullen,
2008) and VFI
(Williams,
2012), however, outline their
vocabulary-learning programmes only in very broad terms. VFIS “aims to extend and
improve the accuracy of your vocabulary and help you prepare for the IELTS test”
(Cullen, 2008, p.4), while VFI claims to help “improve your vocabulary when preparing
for the IELTS examination” (Williams, 2012, p.4). Close inspection of the contents
reveals that neither book explicitly states exactly how many words they teach nor why
these words should be learnt. In fact, in the two chapters on vocabulary learning skills
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(21 and 22), VFIS suggests acquiring further, non-specified vocabulary beyond the
book‟s word list (Cullen, 2008). Thus, the dimensions and the exact composition of the
learning programme are not clear.
FIRW does not quantify vocabulary learning aims. Instead, learners seem to be invited
to build up an IELTS lexicon through reading generally (Lindeck, et al., 2011) p.44).
This seems an impractical suggestion for time-strapped IELTS candidates, as research
has amply proven that incidental learning of vocabulary through reading yields far
smaller and slower results than intentional word learning (File & Adams, 2010; Laufer,
2003; Webb & Nation, 2017). IELTS candidates cannot afford to spend time on
undefined learning programmes with no clear predicted outcome.
A further problem regarding the definition of the learning programme in these books is
that learners are not advised to identify where their vocabulary knowledge intersects
with the books‟ syllabuses. Only advanced learners are advised to begin study of each
block of five units in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) by taking its corresponding vocabulary test.
The assumption seems to be that learners at lower levels are unlikely to be familiar with
most or any of the words in the book. This is not necessarily the case: research suggests
that learners do not acquire vocabulary linearly, but rather according to their needs and
to the language they are exposed to (Schmitt, 2019). As discussed above, textbooks
often focus more on low-frequency vocabulary than on high-frequency lexis (Lawley,
2010; O‟Loughlin, 2012). Thus, determining their distance from the target is useful for
all learners. However, to achieve this, they must be informed of the dimensions of the
task and be provided with the means to assess their position with respect to the target.
None of the books afford this support satisfactorily.
IV.3. Question 3: Is a strong form-meaning knowledge developed?
Schmitt (2014) claims that a receptive lexicon useful for reading involves a strong form-
meaning knowledge. To this purpose, learners need to recognize word form and connect
it with its meaning, and re-encounter target items repeatedly at spaced intervals (Webb
& Nation, 2017). Recent literature consistently recommends the use of flashcards to
develop form-meaning knowledge (Gardner, 2013; Nation, 2013, Webb & Nation,
2017), as cards allow manipulation such as randomization and reshuffling (Ballance &
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Cobb, 2018). Bilingual L1-L2 word cards have been found to be particularly conducive
to learning (Schmitt, 2008, Webb & Nation, 2017).
None of the books in this evaluation focuses explicitly on developing form-meaning
knowledge nor mention bilingual word pair learning nor flashcards. VFI (Williams,
2012) can be seen to facilitate form-meaning knowledge in that it presents the target
words in the dictionary-entry format of word plus brief definition, but not so repeated
retrieval and manipulation. VFIS (Cullen, 2008) prefers a word list, without providing
meaning or guidance for learning it, and in spite of the risk of serial learning induced by
the list format (Nation and Webb 2011). FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011) might have been
ideally positioned to advise students to use flashcards, as its vocabulary section consists
in suggestions for learning vocabulary. It does not mention flashcards, however, and
instead discusses guessing from context and dictionary use to discover meaning, which
are reading skills rather than ways to learn vocabulary.
IV.4. Question 4: Is morphology addressed?
Awareness of morphology can help increase vocabulary size and the recognition of lexis
(Gardner, 2013, p.131). Awareness of derivation is particularly relevant for reading, as
research has shown that derived forms may not be understood, despite knowledge of
stem forms (Schmitt & Zimmerman, 2002). Morphology is dealt with in a variety of
ways in the three books, although overall a lack of underlying systematicity is apparent.
VFIS (Cullen, 2008) draws attention to aspects of morphology in page margin notes
randomly placed through the units. For example, “prefixes can help you work out the
meaning of unknown words” (Cullen, 2008, p.113). Students are invited to find
derivations for words learnt and to record them in a table, and word-family table
completion exercises appear at different points in the book. The word list includes
derived forms for at least 112 stem words, but attention is not specifically drawn to this
relationship, and it is not clear why these particular words and forms have been selected
and not others.
VFI (Williams, 2012) provides inflections for the nouns and verbs covered in every
unit, and also dedicates some attention to affixation via exercises and Exam tip boxes in
page margins. However, the importance of these concepts for vocabulary development
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is not explicitly addressed. By contrast, FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011) mentions the
importance of affixation for guessing the meaning of unknown words. Unfortunately,
prefixes are defined as “usually show[ing] the opposite or a contrast” (Lindeck et al.,
2011, p.51), while suffixes are defined as “chang[ing] the word form” (Lindeck et al.,
2011, p.51). These are, to say the least, incomplete and infelicitous explanations.
Overall, morphology is addressed to some extent in all three books, but without the
systematic, explicit attention it requires.
IV.5. Question 5: Does the book address phonology?
Phonology is usually assumed to regard speaking and listening. This may explain why it
is not addressed in FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011), which focuses on reading and writing.
However, some research suggests that phonology is highly relevant for reading,
particularly for speakers of languages with alphabetic orthography. Walter
(2008)
argues that words read are stored first in the phonological loop rather than in the
visuospatial sketchpad. Milton (2009) claims that it is strongly possible that the phonic
representation of words is far more significant than their written form for the mental
lexicon of most learners. Furthermore, it seems that it is the specific prosodic features of
formulaic sequences which identifies them as linguistic units, to the point that Lin
(2019, p.90) suggests that they would be better treated as “strings of sounds rather than
strings of words”.
Of the three books, VFIS dedicates most attention to pronunciation, including one
pronunciation exercise in each of twelve units, which focuses on individual sounds,
minimal pairs and stress patterns. The exercises always have an audio component.
Learning the pronunciation of a word is listed as one of the steps in the general word-
learning plan outlined in Unit 22, and the word list at the back of the book provides the
phonemic transcription for each individual word, but not for the MWUs. This is
unfortunate, as Lin (2012) suggests that learning MWUs as sound units facilitates the
learning and retention of the phrases and can contribute towards greater reading fluency.
VFI (Williams, 2012) only touches on pronunciation in Unit 4 (stress patterns), Unit 8
(/s/ vs /z/), Unit 12 (“problem consonants”, p.53) and Unit 16 (/ǝ/). A brief exercise is
included that uses the book CD. Phonemic transcriptions or audio tracks of the target
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words are not provided. Thus, phonology is addressed summarily in VFIS (Cullen,
2008), minimally in VFI (Williams, 2012) and not at all in FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011).
IV.6. Question 6: Is synonymy and antonymy addressed?
Bax (2013) stressed the value of attending to synonymy when preparing for IELTS, and
practice materiali endorsed by IELTS reveals that recognition of synonymy is highly
relevant in order to answer questions in the AR test. VFI (Williams, 2012) explicitly
draws attention to synonymy in units 2 and 14. However, work is limited to one or two
exercises, with no suggestions for how to build up a lexicon of synonyms or what words
to concentrate on. VFIS
(Cullen,
2008) regularly includes exercises that require
identifying synonyms in a text or finding synonyms for words extracted from a text, but
never mentions the specific importance of synonymy for the AR test. By contrast,
FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011) dedicates a whole section to synonymy and antonymy,
where it defines the concept and explains the importance of being able to identify
synonyms and antonyms in text and questions in the AR test, and provides examples of
both types of word relation. Prefixes are underlined as frequent identifiers of antonymy,
but suffixes (e.g. useful-useless) are not mentioned. Techniques are not suggested for
developing a lexicon of synomyms and antonyms, as could be keeping tables of word
families, or making mindmaps, and this seems an opportunity missed in this guide to
building up vocabulary for the AR test.
IV.7. Question 7: Are clear explanations provided regarding how to use the book?
Nation (2011) posits that the focus of a vocabulary learning programme should be more
on learning than on teaching vocabulary. This suggests that self-study plays a major role
in this learning process, also considering that classroom time is too limited to ensure
large amounts of vocabulary learning (Webb & Nation, 2017). In their list of features of
good self-study materials, Reinders and Lewis
(2006) include the need for clear
explanations on how to use them. It therefore seems appropriate to critically assess
whether, how and how much learners are guided in using the books investigated here.
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Both VFIS (Cullen, 2008) and VFI (Williams, 2012) provide detailed suggestions for
how to work through the units, using the ancillary materials (word list, tests and
reference section in VFIS; collocations list and revision units in VFI) and keeping a
vocabulary notebook. FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011), by contrast, limits instructions for
using the book to one paragraph where learners are advised to do all the exercises
provided. They are also told that they can “easily select the particular sections to study
based on [their] specific needs” (Lindeck et al., 2011, p.V). A useful improvement
would be to supply tools to help learners identify these needs. However, this would only
be helpful if clear vocabulary learning targets were identified previously, and this does
not occur, as has been discussed with regard to question 2 above.
IV.8. Question 8: Does the book provide feedback?
Feedback is a key factor in learning, as it facilitates self-evaluation and fosters
motivation (Dörnyei, 2001). In all three materials analyzed here, feedback can be
obtained from the answer keys provided at the end of each book. FIRW (Lindeck et al.,
2011) offers no further occasions for feedback, while in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) and VFI
(Williams, 2012) many of the learning tips found in the units can be viewed as indirect
feedback, as they can stimulate reflection. The five tests in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) and the
two revision units in VFI (Williams, 2012) are further sources of feedback. Some check
questions at the end of each unit, or a plan of expanded rehearsal (Schmitt, 2010) could
be useful additions to develop the feedback features in these books.
IV.9. Question 9: Is repetition facilitated and encouraged?
Repeatedly meeting a new word strengthens knowledge of and about it (Nation, 2013;
Webb & Nation, 2017). Although there is no agreement in the literature as to how many
revisitations of a lexical item are necessary in order to learn it (see Schmitt (2007) for
some possible numbers of repetitions), systematic revision sessions are necessary, as
research shows that forgetting begins shortly after the end of a learning session
(Schmitt, 2007).
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Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An evaluation of some pedagogical materials
Basic repetition tools are provided in VFIS (Cullen, 2008) in the shape of regularly
spaced vocabulary tests -one test every five units, for a total of five tests- while VFI
(Williams, 2012) provides two tests, after the first and last ten units. Aside from this,
there are few further opportunities for revisiting vocabulary, as only a handful of target
words ever appear more than once in these books. By contrast, revisiting vocabulary is
recommended in the two-page how to use the book sections of both volumes, although
no guidance is provided as to how or how often to do it. Repetition is neither mentioned
nor facilitated in FIRW (Lindeck et al., 2011). It would therefore appear that the books
investigated here do not offer sufficiently structured recycling programmes.
IV.10. Question 10: Are vocabulary learning strategies suggested?
Memorization and retrieval techniques play a key role in retention of vocabulary (Ellis,
2001). Moreover, research indicates that successful learners seem to use a variety of
vocabulary learning strategies, and therefore explicit instruction of these techniques
could be beneficial (Chacón-Beltrán, 2018). In Unit 22, VFIS (Cullen, 2008) proposes
the following sequence of learning steps, illustrated with example words and exercises:
find out the meaning and the different forms of a word, learn its pronunciation and how
to spell it; use the word, remember the context, apply spelling rules (Cullen, 2008,
pp.114-116). The book can therefore be said to provide a framework for learning the
basic aspects of a word, i.e. form, meaning, and use. Curiously, the examples and
exercises that illustrate each step do not use vocabulary taught in the book. This word-
learning plan could usefully be moved to the beginning of the book, focusing it on the
book‟s word list, thus furnishing learners with a practical strategy for setting out to learn
the target vocabulary. The plan should include concrete learning techniques for
memorizing, retaining and retrieving the new vocabulary.
FIRW usefully suggests trying different strategies to decide which are more effective
(Lindeck et al., 2011, p.43). Further useful suggestions are using target words in a
written sentence, checking their pronunciation and then saying them out loud
repeatedly, and learning to distinguish between frequent and less frequent words.
Learners are also advised to guess meaning from context and check the accuracy of the
guess at a later stage, which is again more of a reading strategy than a technique for
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Marta Serrano van der Laan
“building up your vocabulary”, as the section heading would have it (Lindeck et al.,
2011, p.
43). Other essential word-learning methods are not mentioned, such as
memorization and retrieval techniques. No activities for trying out the proposed
techniques are included, and no tools are suggested that can help learners record,
memorize and retrieve new vocabulary.
VFI (Williams, 2012) makes brief but frequent suggestions for vocabulary learning
throughout the book in the „Exam tip‟ boxes, such as studying example sentences or
learning the different parts of speech of a new word. Curiously, here too the strategies
are not applied to the vocabulary syllabus in the book, but seem to be aimed at a broader
and undefined vocabulary learning program. The suggestions in the tip boxes might
more usefully be related to the target vocabulary in the units, facilitating its learning,
recycling and retrieval.
As can be seen, the learning strategies proposed in all three books are suitable for long-
term study programs. This seems an impractical approach for IELTS materials, since
studying for IELTS typically takes place within a short time span. Student life is
articulated by a variety of short-term deadlines, such as those imposed by university
application and admission procedures, which usually include presenting IELTS scores
by a given date. The provision of a framework for short-term vocabulary learning would
be desirable in materials that claim to prepare for IELTS. Such a framework could
consist in the deliberate learning of form-meaning pairs from word cards and word lists.
The literature shows that this is a highly effective way of quickly acquiring significant
amounts of vocabulary, particularly if the word lists are bilingual (Elgort, 2011; Laufer
& Shmueli, 1997, Schmitt, 2008, Webb & Nation, 2017).
V. CONCLUSIONS
This study set out to investigate whether three vocabulary learning books for IELTS
issued by authoritative publishers could be considered effectively useful towards
passing the AR test successfully. The outcome of the evaluation performed suggests the
contrary. None of the books make a clear case as to what vocabulary is necessary for
IELTS AR, nor how much of it can be learnt by using the materials. At the same time,
the vocabulary addressed seems to be the result of an insufficiently informed and
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Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An evaluation of some pedagogical materials
incomplete selection, as no mention is made of relevant frequency levels, target
vocabulary size or text coverage afforded. Schmitt (2019) identified the need for current
vocabulary materials to be more systematic and principle-based. He also pointed at the
key role of materials writers as the most appropriate players to develop pedagogically
sound vocabulary learning programmes, as teachers tend to be time-strapped and unable
to keep up with state-of -the art research. The results of this study confirm Schmitt‟s
research agenda and lay bare the urgent need for appropriate vocabulary materials for
IELTS study.
This paper identifies relevant issues regarding vocabulary learning materials for IELTS,
in particular the need for materials to use a principled approach, grounded in research.
They also need to outline clear learning objectives based on the effective requirements
of the exam. A limitation of this study is the lack of a more precise knowledge of the
features of the vocabulary typical of AR texts. As an independent study not funded or
endorsed by IELTS, access to authentic IELTS exam materials was impossible. Future
research could usefully investigate a statistically significant sample of AR passages,
making it possible to provide IELTS candidates with evidence-based vocabulary
learning goals.
Notes
i Cambridge University Press publishes past IELTS papers on a more or less annual basis in their IELTS
Practice Tests volumes. A practice test is also available on https://www.ielts.org/
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Received: 10 June 2020
Accepted: 11 December 2020
Cite this article as:
Serrano van der Laan, M. (2020). Learning vocabulary for IELTS Academic Reading: An
evaluation of some pedagogical materials. Language Value, 13(1), 78-102. Jaume I University
ePress: Castelló, Spain. http://www.languagevalue.uji.es.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.4
ISSN 1989-7103
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Language Value
December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 103-109
http://www.languagevalue.uji.es
ISSN 1989-7103
BOOK REVIEW
Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions
Patricia Bou-Franch and Pilar Garcés-Conejos Blitvich
Palgrave Macmillan, 2019 (1st ed.). 400 pages.
ISBN: 978-3-319-92662-9
Reviewed by Daniel Pascual
dpascual@unizar.es
Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain
Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions, edited by Bou-Franch and
Garcés-Conejos Blitvich, provides orchestrated accounts of current trends in „digital
discourse‟, which seek to understand up-to-date communicative situations occurring
online and the manifold affordances at users‟ disposal. At the core of the volume lies
the necessity to comprehend the latest technological evolutions enacting new forms of
digital interaction, which should lead to adapt traditional approaches and adopt
innovative, suitable methods to identify and analyse users‟ semiotic and discursive
practices. Such changes and adaptations are empirically examined in a plethora of
digital genres and media from several sociocultural and interpersonal contexts.
Therefore, the studies deployed in the book will be undoubtedly of interest to
researchers of digital communication and of its prominent medium- and user-dependent
characteristics, from several interdisciplinary perspectives including, inter alia,
Computer-Mediated Communication
(CMC) and Discourse Analysis
(CMDA),
ethnography, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, multimodality, social media analysis and
pedagogy. Following the introductory chapter by the editors, the remaining chapters are
thematically organised in sections which single out the study of digital discourse from
four different vantage points: historical development, multimodality, face and identity,
and ideologies triggered by language and media.
Part I is constituted by Bou-Franch and Garcés-Conejos Blitvich‟s
“Introduction”,
where they establish the theoretical foundations for the analysis of digital discourse,
which “lies at the intersection of (non)language resources, society, and technology”
Language Value, ISSN 1989-7103
103
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6035/LanguageV.2020.13.5
Book Review
(p.1). The relevance of holistic analyses of online communicative acts is stressed by
emphasising the pertinence of considering semiotic modes and contextual clues. The
three identifiable waves of CMC are reviewed to observe the progression in digital
discourse approaches and methods over the years. Subsequently, the overarching parts
and the individual chapters in the volume are suitably linked to the rationale of digital
discourse and carefully contextualised by relating them to seminal, previous literature
and present needs.
Part II contains Herring‟s contribution, who tackles the “Past, Present and Future” of
CMC. She offers a retrospective, holistic overview of the Internet and the framework,
outlining the consecutive technological affordances and research interests in the Pre-
Web, Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 stages. Then, the author reinforces the urgent demand to
reconceptualise CMDA by successfully integrating the framework of multimodality.
Accordingly, new research directions are unveiled, such as communication on
interactive multimodal platforms, graphical communication in the form of avatar-
mediated communication and telepresence robot-mediated communication, all of them
enabling media convergence and taking on new angles on social interaction.
Herring‟s chapter gives way to Part III, “Multimodality”, dedicated to analyses of both
everyday digital communicative acts, in the format of videocalls and news texts, and
interactional resources, such as memes and WhatsApp emoticons. Sindoni investigates
in Chapter 3, through a case study, a two-party intercultural Skype interaction, as a
source of synchronous Video-Mediated Communication (VMC). Her goal is to grasp
students‟ underlying ideologies and biases on language communication through their
own perceptions and multimodal transcriptions. Students‟ critical observations of the
video-related data are contrasted with the researchers‟ and complemented with students‟
comments. The verbal components scrutinised in the communicative exchanges are
qualitatively supported by insights into kinesics, gaze and proxemics. The author
ultimately claims the predominance of verbal resources over non-verbal ones and
students‟ tendency towards the standardisation of chaotic, overlapping speech,
highlighting the pedagogical advantages of manual, multimodal transcription of VMC
to foster their multiliteracy skills.
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Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions
In Chapter 4 Yus explores 100 image macro memes to track visual explicatures and
implicatures from distinct text-picture combinations under the scope of
cyberpragmatics. A set of inferential strategies is put forward to find out users‟
expectations and processes in the search for relevance in meme communication, and the
saliency of meme elements is said to yield user-dependent non-linear reading paths.
McCloud‟s (1994) taxonomy of multimodal combinations in comics is drawn upon to
manifest that pragmatic relevant interpretations and the global meaning of memes are
fully retrieved when both text and picture are interlaced. This is evidenced in the two
most prominent categories: the additive, where one mode amplifies the implications
conveyed by the other, and the interdependent, where the coexistence of the two modes
is quintessential to elaborate an idea.
In Chapter 5, Johansson concentrates on the political opinion review genre in an online
news text intertwining a written storyline with digital quotations, i.e. “multi-layered”
and “polyphonic” linguistic phenomena (p.140). The genre analysis swiftly describes
how the quotations -photos, tweets and a video- are integrated in the three topical
sections of the texts, and confirms its commenting, rather than reporting, nature. The
roles of journalists as gatekeepers and mediators are also acknowledged, based on the
cross-media confronted dialogue arranged. In brief, Johansson verifies the hybridity of
nowadays digital news genres, and her chapter is a first step in understanding the
recontextualisation of digital quotations in news texts.
Pérez-Sabater closes this section with Chapter 6 about the gendered distribution of
emoticons in communities of adult close friends through WhatsApp. The discourse
analysis of eight male-only and female-only naturally-occurring chat threads is
combined with an online questionnaire for initial insights and face-to-face interviews
with participants. Dissimilarities concerning gendered emoticon use in her sample are
statistically evidenced, with women‟s occurrences greatly outnumbering men‟s.
Moreover, women‟s lengthy, intense style is in stark contrast with men‟s straight, brief
and brisk contributions. Participants‟ perceptions of (un)necessary emoticons in the
interaction demonstrate that women tend to build group intimacy and affectivity, while
men favour instrumentality and avoid superfluous exchanges. Pérez-Sabater‟s
qualitative results thus remark stereotypes of gendered emotional expression that need
further analysis with a greater variability of participants and mixed group interactions.
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Book Review
Part IV, “Face and Identity”, covers a diverse set of identities (gendered, professional or
social) and generic and discursive practices in relation to various digital platforms.
Specific verbal and technical mechanisms are discussed for the creation, maintenance
and deconstruction of users‟ identity. Chapter
7, by Vásquez and Sayers China,
specifically analyses gendered identity (de)construction through discursive and stylistic
choices in Amazon reviews. Across two datasets of legitimate and parody reviews, the
authors account for the ways reviewers build and perform their identity rendering both
normative and counter-hegemonic gender ideologies in this digital genre. The analysis
of the legitimate dataset unravels how users reproduce heteronormative gender
ideologies in their discursive choices. On the contrary, users‟ relational identity is much
more frequently deployed and consciously visible in parody reviews, which contest
engendered products and ideologies, mainly using deconstructive linguistic
mechanisms.
Von Rohr, Thurnerr and Locher‟s Chapter 8 delves into the construction of expert
identities in online health practices, especially in advisory situations. A close discourse-
analytic approach is shown around four objects of enquiry: anti-smoking websites,
online advice columns, counselling emails and online forums. The embeddedness of the
strategies identified in the digital environments and their affordances, the
complementary co-occurrence of strategies, and the degree of interactivity of the
medium that hosts them are regarded as key in considering how expertise is enacted in
these contexts. Excerpts from the sub-corpora epitomise the different promotion of
professionals, clients and laypeople‟s authority and credibility in each of the scenarios.
Petroni‟s contribution, Chapter
9, revolves around the linguistic processes and
technological affordances that shape professional identity construction in LinkedIn,
relying on Goffman‟s framework on identity (1956). To that endeavour, a corpus-
assisted analysis of top-ten nouns, adjectives and verbs in summary sections of
LinkedIn is undertaken, displaying a general “scarce use of self-branding techniques”
(p.268). These results are further assessed by taking a descriptive glance at other
LinkedIn sections and their functionalities, with respect to the principles of social media
logic
(van Dijck & Poell, 2013). Hence, self-profiling and identity placement are
demonstrated not to be as effectively prompted by users‟ verbal practices as by the
platform architecture and connectivity potential.
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Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions
Last in this section, Chapter 10, written by Maíz-Arévalo, tracks face-saving techniques
in a corpus of Facebook conversational turns from one Spanish common interest group.
To Guerrero, Andersen and Afifi‟s (2014) classification of face-repairing strategies, the
author pertinently adds two categories for the analysis of this digital context, namely
expressing support and appealing to group‟s unity. Participants‟ most employed
strategies in such a low-tied community are revealed to include expressing support,
giving an account, showing ignorance of a conflict, using humour and aggression. The
author‟s initial hypothesis that participants would not jeopardise their own face to help
others proves interestingly wrong, since extensive fragments illustrate that “users are
very participative when repairing the group‟s harmony”
(p.305). Illustrative
implications from the case study may set the ground to identify more meaningful
generalisations.
Part V gathers a collection of studies around
“Language and Media Ideologies”,
highlighting the sociocultural attitudes and practices endorsed in an array of digitally-
mediated communicative situations, and how these contribute to the linguistic portrayal
of the self. In Chapter 11, Antonio García-Gómez investigates the linguistic strategies
of heterosexual British young men to construct and negotiate their gendered identities in
the context of sexting: “the electronic swapping of sexually provocative images and/or
texts”
(p.313). The discourse analysis of guided discussions with participants is
combined with personal interviews. Out of Hecht et al.‟s (2005) three layers of the self,
the communal layer is argued to stand out in their discursive self-representation through
informative and eliciting pragmatic acts. Insights from the interviews corroborate
participants‟ digital performance towards individual and in-group masculine positivity,
but also discern competing, interwoven male narratives ranging from socially legitimate
to unconventional, subordinated discursive identities.
Sifianou and Bella in Chapter 12 focus on the pragmatic lay conceptualisation of
politeness and its relationship with self-representation in their Twitter Corpus of Greek
Politeness. Their filtered analysis of tweets containing the keyword phrase “politeness
is/is not” unveils users‟ definitions of politeness and the values they attach to this
concept. Although a more visual representation of findings would be welcome, the
authors noticeably show the consideration of politeness as an abstract, intersubjectively
enacted phenomenon, and explain how the inherent disembodiment and required brevity
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Book Review
of Twitter influence the content of the messages, but do not impede users to exploit
creative, playful linguistic mechanisms fostering their individual and social identities.
Finally, recontextualisation and appropriation from other-than-Twitter Internet sources
are discussed to pinpoint how networked users favour their searchability and self-
representation.
Last chapter by Roeder, Miller and Garcés-Conejos Blitvich presents a preliminary
study on the benefits of pedagogical intervention to increase undergradutes‟
metalinguistic consciousness of virtual communicative norms, specifically in texting
practices. Participants‟ perceptions were surveyed to analyse their pragmatic and
sociolinguistic competences, involving audience awareness and their positioning about
text appropriateness. Quantitative findings and participants‟ qualitative comments attest
that the target group bolstered the Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1993) and did achieve
a more heightened accommodation to audience types than the control group. The
interplay between the deployment of textese and positive self-presentation is also briefly
explored, to underline that targeted class work on language pragmatic functions aids
students in resisting prescriptive norms and raising their overall metalinguistic
awareness.
Taken together, the chapters compiled in this edited volume entail a pioneering move
forward in the analysis of digital communication and in the recognition of the
multimodal and linguistic patterns that foreground specific communicative situations
online. Bou-Franch and García-Conejos Blitvich‟s book is indeed worthy of reflection
for those researchers who seek for contemporary digital practices, and may definitely
inspire them to expand the scope and the tools to promote state-of-the-art approaches
and analyses of digital discourse. The wide variety of objects of study and the refining
of theoretical and methodological tenets introduced in this volume profusely invite
researchers to continue looking into the technical affordances and users‟ (non)verbal
choices characterising ever-changing digital communication.
REFERENCES
Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life. New York: Anchor
Books.
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Analyzing Digital Discourse: New Insights and Directions
Guerrero, L.K., Andersen, P.A., & Afifi, W.A.
(2014). Close Encounters:
Communication in Relationships. London: Sage Publications.
Hecht, M. L., Warren, J. R., Jung, E., & Krieger, J. L. (2005). The communication
theory of identity: Development, theoretical perspective, and future directions.
In W.B. Gudykunst
(Ed.), Theorizing about Intercultural Communication
(pp.257-278). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
McCloud, S. (1994). Understanding comics: The Invisible Art. New York: Harper
Collins.
Schmidt, R.
(1993). Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics. In G.
Kasper (Ed.), Interlanguage Pragmatics (pp.21-42). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
van Dijck, J., & Poell, T.
(2013). Understanding social media logic. Media and
Communication, 1(1), 2-14.
Received: 19 November 2020
Accepted: 24 November 2020
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December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 110-115
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ISSN 1989-7103
BOOK REVIEW
Translation Quality Assessment: From Principles to Practice
Joss Moorkens, Sheila Castilho, Federico Gaspari and Stephen Doherty (Series
Editor: Andy Way)
Springer, 2018 (1st edition). 287 pages.
ISBN: 978-3-319-91240-0.
Reviewed by Rocío Caro Quintana
R.Caro@wlv.ac.uk
University of Wolverhampton, Spain
With the growth of digital content and the consequences of globalization, more content
is published every day and it needs to be translated in order to make it accessible to
people all over the world. This process is very simple and straightforward thanks to the
implementation of Machine Translation (MT), which is the process of translating texts
automatically with a computer software in a few seconds. Nevertheless, the quality of
texts has to be checked to make them comprehensible, since the quality from MT is still
far from perfect. Translation Quality Assessment: From Principles to Practice, edited
by Joss Moorkens, Sheila Castilho, Federico Gaspari and Stephen Doherty (2018), deals
with the different ways (automatic and manual) these translations can be evaluated. The
volume covers how the field has changed throughout the decades (from 1978 until
2018), the different methods it can be applied, and some considerations for future
Translation Quality Assessment applications.
Translation Quality Assessment (TQA) focuses on the product, not on the process of
translation. In one way or another, it affects everyone in the translation process:
students, educators, project managers, language service professional and translation
scholars and researchers. Therefore, this book is addressed to translation students,
lecturers, and researchers who are interested in learning about the industry, research
about the topic, or even creating new methods or applications.
The volume consists of 11 chapters that are divided into the following 3 parts:
Part 1: Scenarios for Translation Quality Assessment (Chapters 1- 4).
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Part 2: Developing Applications of Translation Quality Assessment (5-8).
Part 3: Translation Quality Assessment in Practice (9-11).
The first chapter, written by the editors, is an introduction to Translation Quality
Assessment (TQA) and the different methods it can be applied. As aforementioned,
there are two main ways to assess the quality of translated texts: manually and
automatically. The manual evaluation can be done in several ways; however, the most
known approaches are Dynamic Quality Framework (DQF), Multidimensional Quality
Metric (MQM) and the LISA QA (Localization Industry Standard Association Quality
Assessment) Model. These approaches evaluate the final quality of a translation (for
instance, checking if there are terminology errors or mistranslations). The automatic
evaluation also has a variety of approaches, for instance, Bilingual Evaluation
Understudy (BLEU, Papineni et al. 2002), Metric for Evaluation of Translation with
Explicit Ordering (METEOR, Banerjee and Lavie, 2007), and Translation Error Rate
(TER, Snover et al. 2006). These approaches measure the quality of a translated text
comparing the final output with one or more reference translations. However, the editors
claim that no approach or metric is sufficient to all scenarios and text types (literary
translation, audiovisual translation, etc.) and these approaches may be changed by the
users accordingly to meet their needs.
The next chapter (Chapter 2) introduces how translation is managed and its quality
evaluated in the European Union (EU) institutions. The texts published by the EU are
official texts that must be translated into many languages. Therefore, quality must be
maintained in all the versions and the consistency must be maintained. There are a lot of
quality checks and steps that texts must go through before publishing the official
version. As there are many texts published and a lot of languages, the EU outsources a
lot of these texts, which have to follow the Directorate General for Translation norms.
The EU has created its Translation Memory, MT and a glossary database: IATE. The
authors conclude by emphasising that these texts are essential to inform the citizens
about the EU projects (especially in a time where the opposition to the EU and populist
media with anti-EU agenda is very common) and this is achieved through quality
translations.
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Chapter 3 explores the new phenomenon of crowdsourcing, in this case, translation
crowdsourcing, and how its quality can be measured. Crowdsourcing entails the
outsourcing of translation tasks (translation, revision, post-editing) for free or for low
rates to large crowds. The problem is evident: as there are a lot of participants it is hard
to check the quality of the texts due to stylistic issues. Another problem has to do with
the scope of the translation: just for gisting purposes or for dissemination. Moreover, the
author posed the following question: “Who is responsible for quality?” (p.79). The
author argues that, in certain cases, those responsible for the final text may be the
Language Service Providers and, in others, the translators and revisers. Although it may
be difficult to carry out this process due to the challenges it poses, it has been used in a
lot of platforms, such as Amara, Wikipedia or Facebook.
The last chapter of the first part (chapter 4) discusses the lack of education in TQA in
degrees and even on postgraduates’ translation courses. The authors advocate that it is
crucial to teach translation students the quality evaluation methods to prepare them for
the translation marketplace, especially since the use of MT is changing the role of
translators into post-editors; thus their primary purpose will be to fix MT outputs.
The second part of the volume focuses on the development of approaches or metrics to
assess the quality of translation. The first chapter of this part (chapter 5) analyses three
different systems for TQA in depth: DQT, MQM and the harmonisation of the two,
called the DQQ/MQM Error Typology. The author remarks that these systems were
originally created to support translators with the reviewing process. The history of TQA
is summarised, explaining that the first attempts to standardise the reviewing process
were two standards: SAE J2450 and LISA QA Model. But as the author states, these
approaches had important limitations: the low inter-annotator agreement and that they
were not useful to all the possible translation scenarios or text types. As a result, DQF
and MQM were created. Since 2015, their integration has become the preferred method.
Following this research, the following chapter (chapter 6) focuses on the analysis of the
errors found in MT. While the previous approaches described in chapter 5 could be used
for human or machine translation, the main focus in this chapter is on the error analysis
of MT outputs. The evaluation of MT is usually carried out during the post-editing
process; therefore, the author states that the classification of MT errors or post-editing
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Translation Quality Assessment: From Principles to Practice
operations is performed to analyse the process, not translation errors. This error
classification can be done manually, automatically or with a combination of the two.
There is not, however, a standard system to evaluate MT output.
Similarly, Chapter 7 discusses how MT output is evaluated. The author describes
different human and automatic evaluations and their problems. There are three main
different human evaluation types: Typological evaluation, declarative evaluation and
operational evaluation. Regarding automatic evaluation, the following problems
challenge the translation assessment task: 1) they do not compare the translation with
the source segment; 2) they usually work with only one reference translation; 3) there is
not a “perfect translation”; and 4) the human translation (used as reference translation)
could be incorrect. To conclude, the author affirms that novel metrics are needed to
improve the outputs of MT engines.
The second part of the volume concludes with chapter 8, which briefly describes
audiovisual translation (AVT). It delves into the main features of this field, particularly
into spatial and temporal restrictions, which produces a different set of norms and
standards than differ from other text types. The authors describe how the Computer-
Assisted Tools and MT are also being implemented in AVT, especially to improve the
productivity of translators and preserve the consistency of the texts (for instance, on TV
shows). Quality is still difficult to assess on these texts as metrics such as NER (Net
Error Rate, Romero-Fresco & Pérez, 2015) or WER (Word Error Rate, Nießen et al.,
2000) are not useful due to the inherent characteristics of AVT mentioned above.
The third and last part of the book includes chapters which analyse TQA in practice in
different fields. Chapter 9 delves into Translation Quality Estimation (TQE) which
differs slightly from TQA since TQE does not require a reference translation to estimate
how good a translation provided by an MT engine is. The goal of the authors in this
paper is to successfully implement TQE methods that can distinguish between “good”
and “bad” translations. If the translation is “good”, the MT output is post-edited; and if
the output is deemed “bad”, it will be translated from scratch. While this chapter is of
interest, it may not be accessible to everyone as it has a lot of terms and mathematical
formulas that only people that are familiar with Computational Linguistics may
understand.
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Book Review
Chapter 10 explores the use of MT in Academic Texts. English has become a lingua
franca worldwide and many scholars have to use it in order to publish their work.
However, in many cases, English is not their first language, and this could produce
some problems with the quality of the texts. The authors posed the following questions:
is [MT] actually a useful aid for academic writing and what impact it might have on
the quality of the written product?” (p. 238). To this end, the authors conducted some
experiments where 10 participants were asked to write half a text in English, and the
other half in their native language, and this was later translated to English with an MT
engine. Then, the texts were revised. The results of these experiments showed that the
revision of the texts written in English was shorter and the opinions of the translators
were mixed in terms of efforts and whether they would use MT again for this purpose.
The texts were also checked with an automatic grammar and style checker, but there
were no major differences in terms of quality.
Finally, the last chapter of this part and this volume (chapter 11) goes into research the
use of Neural Machine Translation (NMT) into Literary texts. The authors’ objective is
to check whether literary texts can be translated correctly through NMT, namely novels
from English into Catalan. To do this, they built a literary-adapted NMT system and
compared the results with a Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation engine. The
quality was checked with automatic metrics (BLEU) and manual evaluation and, as the
authors expected, the results proved favourable to NMT.
All things considered, this volume is an excellent reference to learn and understand the
different approaches and methods of TQA. It provides a very insightful look at the
basics of TQA. The editors do not only present useful chapters about the basics of the
theory, but they also present examples where these methods have been and could be
applied. Hence, it will be very useful to scholars and translation students, whether they
want to focus on research or the industry.
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Translation Quality Assessment: From Principles to Practice
REFERENCES
Banerjee, S., & Lavie, A. (2005). METEOR: An automatic metric for MT evaluation
with improved correlation with human judgments. In Proceedings of the ACL
workshop on intrinsic and extrinsic evaluation measures for machine translation
and/or summarization (pp. 65-72). Michigan: Association for Computational
Linguistics.
Nießen S., Och, F.J., Leusch, G., & Ney, H. (2000). An evaluation tool for machine
translation: fast evaluation for MT research. In Proceedings of the second
international conference on language resources and evaluation
(pp.39-45).
Athens: European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
Papineni, K., Salim, R., Todd, W. & Wei-Jing, Z.
(2002). BLEU: a method for
automatic evaluation of machine translation. In Proceedings of the 40th annual
meeting on association for computational linguistics (pp.311-318). Philadelphia:
Association for Computational Linguistics.
Romero-Fresco P., & Pérez, J.M. (2015). Accuracy rate in live subtitling: the NER
model. In J. Díaz Cintas & R. Baños Piñero (Eds.), Audiovisual translation in a
global context (pp.28-50). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Snover, M., Dorr, B., Richard, S., Micciulla, L., & Makhoul, J. (2006). A study of
translation edit rate with targeted human annotation. In Proceedings of the 7th
Conference of the Association for Machine Translation in the Americas (pp.223-
231). Cambridge: The Association for Machine Translation in the Americas.
Received: 18 November 2020
Accepted: 24 November 2020
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December 2020, Volume 13, Number 1 pp. 116-120
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ISSN 1989-7103
BOOK REVIEW
Accessibilitat i traducció visual
Anna Matamala
Eumo Editorial, 2019. 275 pages
ISBN: 978-84-9766-687-9
Reviewed by Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández
anhernan@uji.es
Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Accessibilitat i traducció audiovisual (Audiovisual Accessibility and Translation, in
English) by Anna Matamala (2019) is a book written in Catalan which delves into the
possibilities of making the audiovisual experience complete for all consumers by
modifying content. With the rise of audiovisual and virtual content in the
communication media, many people with disabilities such as hearing loss or visual
impairment are left behind in the most run-of-the-mill experiences, especially those
containing aural and visual elements as they cannot fully participate in the imaginary
construct created by the voices, images and sounds. This book not only intends to show
how to accommodate films, series and TV programmes to the needs of the audience,
namely the hard of hearing and the blind or partially blind, but it also provides a general
overview of the job of the translator, including translation techniques, along with an
analysis of media accessibility. Furthermore, the book proposes activities for the reader
to reach their own conclusions and experience first-hand. In doing so, Matamala
captures the reader’s attention and attains reader’s interaction and participation, making
traditionally passive reading an active learning experience.
Although this book covers the subject of translation, it is not only addressed to
professional translators inasmuch as they are already acquainted with the information
regarding translation techniques and professional aspects of the job. The audiences that,
to my mind, would benefit from this book the most are translation teachers and students,
due to its manual layout. Matamala has written and designed this book in a way that
learning occurs gradually; that is to say, definitions and more general aspects of
translation are presented and illustrated at the beginning of the book to culminate in the
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explanation of those techniques that cater for the consumers’ needs in order to
accommodate content. The aim of content accommodation is to maximise the
audiovisual experience in people with disabilities, namely subtitles, visual description
or audio subtitling among others, in order to approach audiovisual content to them.
The book is divided into 11 chapters, which at the same time could be divided into 4
main blocks. The first three chapters constitute the first block. They are an introduction
to the world of translation and the job of the translator. These first chapters contain
information about adapting foreign content to the average viewer. The second block
(Chapters 4 to 6) focuses on different adaptation or content modification strategies for
the general public. Block three, includes Chapters
7 to 10, it focuses on media
accessibility. That is, how the content-modification strategies described in previous
chapters can be applied to make audiovisual content accessible to all, especially but not
limited to those with visual or hearing impairment. The book comes to an end with an
analysis of the state of the art and the yet-to-come (Chapter 11 -block 4). All of these
chapters include a definition of the items covered as well as the current situation and
their use in the Catalan context, along with the analysis of the adaptation methodologies
used by public TV broadcasters, most common standards and practices, and some
recommendations. Additionally, the author references countless authors and collects an
extensive bibliography for further information on the topics.
The book opens with a ‘reality check’ of the limited accessibility to the audiovisual
world. The author refers to the incomplete involvement of people with visual or hearing
impairment in the audiovisual experience. In the first chapter, Matamala outlines and
defines what the term ‘audiovisual content’ refers to, i.e. those products based on sound
and visual elements. In addition to this, Matamala encourages the reader - and potential
translator - to think of the purpose, the target audience or the setting the audiovisual
product was designed to be enjoyed in, among others. Once the author establishes the
important elements to bear in mind from an audiovisual perspective, a general
classification is given to modify the original content and make it more accessible,
namely sound and visual modifications. Matamala touches on the accessibility to
information and communication, i.e. media accessibility, its evolution in the past decade
and how the job of the translator becomes paramount to guarantee equal access to it.
The focal point of Chapter 2 is on the barriers and challenges the translation of the
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Book Review
audiovisual elements might pose. The first challenge for the translator is linguistic
variation, both interlinguistic, i.e. more than one different language present, and
intralinguistic, i.e. dialect and register. The second challenge is terminology, which is
presented as a second challenge since it is key to the understanding of the meaning,
whether technical or fabricated for the sake of the audiovisual work, in order to be able
to transfer this meaning and ascertain that the target audience will be able to decode it.
Along these lines, cultural references also pose a quandary to the professional translator,
as well as intertextuality, i.e. reference to other works, and humour. The author proposes
techniques to conquer these obstacles, but the suggestions are not without their
limitations, which are also identified in this book and the reader is warned about them.
In Chapter 3, Matamala enumerates and suggests a series of tools for professional
practice such as linguistic, translation or time management tools among others, as well
as tools for research. The resources mentioned in this chapter may be useful for both the
self-employed professional translator and the translator-to-be, as the author reviews
their utility and applicability.
All the chapters in the next two blocks include a definition of the technique exposed
along with its evolution in the Catalan context. Chapters 4 to10 include a section in
which the author compiles different possible groupings suggested by different authors
for such content-modification modality. Furthermore, the author offers a description of
the main characteristics as well as information on the technical and linguistic aspects.
The last sections in all the chapters of this block aim at the professional world of the
translator in which the process of the given modality, industry standards and
recommendations are outlined along with further research on the topic.
Chapter 4 focuses on one of the modifications of audiovisual content: dubbing. The
definition for this technique is given in the chapter in conjunction with a clarification
for many widespread misconceptions about it, namely the mistaken belief that what
translators do is merely translate a script. The author goes on to specify the detail and
work behind a dubbing script to debunk this myth. The chapter that follows (Chapter 5)
introduces voice-over as a second content-modification modality in contrast with
dubbing and simultaneous interpreting. According to the author, these three are similar,
yet different from each other. Despite having some shared traits with dubbing such as
the modification of the soundtrack, voice-over does not require lip synchrony, for
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instance; and although in both simultaneous interpreting and voice-over the translation
overlaps with the original, in the former the translation is live, whereas there is previous
written preparation in the latter (Matamala, 2019). Chapter 6 deals with subtitling for
the general audience, its uses, general characteristics and steps that need to be followed
in the subtitling process. Matamala underlines the possible variations within the format
and detail of the subtitles depending on whether the target audience is able to decode
sounds. She goes on to provide a description of this technique by juxtaposing it with
other techniques such as dubbing or voice-over.
Chapter 7 has to do with the accessibility of the audiovisual content and the job of the
translator in interpreting those contents in an effort to decode them for those with a
visual or hearing disability. An example the author points out is sign language.
Additionally, Chapter 8 goes back to subtitling, although this time the writer unravels
subtitling techniques for the hard of hearing. She recounts how Catalan public
broadcasting services pioneered accessibility through subtitling in the Spanish media.
Chapter 9 deals with video description, which consists in narrating what the eye can see.
In other words, to transfer visual elements to linguistic and aural elements. This
modality has been traditionally associated with lack of vision, although, as the author
puts it, it can also enhance the audiovisual experience in the average viewer. Matamala
provides an insight into the Catalan broadcasting context by giving a myriad of
examples of audiovisual works that have been made accessible through this modality, as
well as listing official regulations, namely in the Valencia area, which establish that
certain government speeches of interest to the general public should be video-described.
Chapter 10 is also connected with a modality to make the media accessible: audio
subtitling. This modality, as claimed by the author, benefits a variety of audiences
ranging from people with a visual disability to a reading disability. In this modality, it is
important to identify the characters before their intervention, among other distinctive
features listed in the book. Chapter 11 closes the book addressing the issue of new
practices and recent research among which the field of virtual reality can be found. The
book culminates in a look to the future and a critical eye on the present, including what
is exposed in this book.
All things considered, the book is a useful guide book for translation students,
professors and professionals since it defines and summarises the uses of translation
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Book Review
modalities and their uses are illustrated with clear examples. These examples add a note
of realism, which proves profitable for those who are about to be immersed in the
translation labour market.
Received: 08 September 2020
Accepted: 15 September 2020
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